Randi Forest, CY

Randi Forest, Cyprus: Description of site and main causes of degradation

2014-11-06T09:45:46+00:00

Authors:	Christoforou, M. and Tsaltas, D.
Coordinating authors:	Tsanis, I. K. and Daliakopoulos, I. N.
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Daliakopoulos, I. and Tsanis, I. (eds) 2014. Historical evolution of dryland ecosystems. CASCADE Project Deliverable 2.1. CASCADE Report 04. 126 pp.

Description of the study site

General information

Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, and is located in the South East Mediterranean, in the Levantine Basin, with an area of 9,250 km². The island is dominated by two mountain ranges: Troodos, in the central and western part and Pentadaktylos in the north (Kyrenia range). The geological history is characterized by marine sedimentation in a sea that became gradually shallow. The climate is intense Mediterranean with an average annual rainfall of approximately 480 mm. The Pissouri area is located at the south zone of Cyprus, in the south east part of Paphos district area and consists of the Randi Forest (located in Pissouri basin), being characterized as drylands. Vegetation consists of plants from different habitats such as pine forests, phrygana, maquis, all growing around the rocky hill faces. In the Pissouri area, lack of rainfall leads to shallow soils and water erosion, while soils are further damaged by livestock grazing, thus impeding plant growth.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Randi Forest, Cyprus Study Site location" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Topography of the Randi Forest Study Site area" title="">

Topography

The topography of Cyprus is affected by the geology and dominated by the Troodos Mountains in the south and the Kyrenia Mountains along the northern coast and Mesaoria plain. The Randi Forest Study Site is approximately 14 km² with focus on three particular areas at 34°40.286N, 32°39.292E; 34°40.237N, 32°38.830E and 34°40.487'N, 32°38.797' E over an area of approximately 4 km² at an inclination of 20-25%. The topography ranges from 0 to 140 m above sea level. The sites include the three grazing conditions being examined by CASCADE.

Geology and Soils

The dominating soils in the area are calcaric regosols, with a deep brown color. The soil contains around 25% clay and 40% silt. In the valley and on hills there is a slight inclination of 20%. Deeper colluviums soils are also present with 30-40% clay and 50% silt. Many parts of the area are characterized by severe topsoil erosion losses and thus, the root system is limited by the underlying strata. Furthermore, the high CaCO₃ content and the clay soils reduce the infiltration rates and thus increase water erosion.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Geological map of Cyprus" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Photograph of hillslope in study area" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Corine land cover map for the study area" title="">

Soil studies and classification began in Cyprus in 1957 and consisted of the physical and chemical data of soil properties. The majority of soils on Cyprus display near neutral to alkaline pH (>8) values, reflecting the influence of carbonates, as well as colluviums – alluvium areas and alkaline earth oxides and hydroxides derived from dominate formations. This is significantly more alkaline than the average for the rest of Europe (pH 5.5-5.8).

Land Use

The sites consist of hilly terrain covered by open areas with shrubs and sparse carob and olive trees. Areas south of the forest consist of vineyards, which have dried up due to lack of water. As the land is not suitable for agriculture, it is used for livestock grazing, in particular goats and sheep. Besides recent events, the major land use change occurred in the 1930s, when Randi Forest was still an actual forest rather than the shrubland it currently is. When interviewing people in the village, two old men aged 87 and 85 years old said that “in the 1930s the British governor gave permission to the local people in the area to cut the trees and use them as firewood”.

Climate

The climate in Cyprus is intense Mediterranean, with wet, variable winters from November to March, and hot, dry summers from May to September, separated by short spring and autumn seasons of rapidly changing weather. The average annual rainfall in the area was 410 mm from 1990 to 2000, and 440 mm from 1970 to 2000, below the 480 mm average for the island as a whole.. However, annual rainfall data from the Asprokremmos region near the Randi Forest indicates an average rainfall of 490 mm. Annual rainfall has decreased by almost 50%, from about 600 mm to about 330 mm, over the period 1960-2002.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Mean monthly (blue) and mean annual (green) precipitation measured at Asprokremos and infilled from the E-OBS dataset." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Mean monthly temperature at Pissouri derived from the E-OBS dataset and corrected for bias" title="">

The average annual temperature in the area is 33°C during summer and 15°C during winter-time. Monthly temperature fluctuation in the area is relatively stable over the historical record with an annual average of 19.5 °C. In the study area, the average monthly evapotranspiration is 180 mm, with the potential evapotranspiration being 250 mm monthly. The potential evaporation in the area was estimated at 1,700 mm.

Hydrogeology

The period of zero precipitation lasts for four months, from July until October. There is no information available regarding the groundwater level and the flow/runoff. There is also no available information regarding the type and amount of irrigation water. The area is just outside the Pissouri West, located over a Gypsum Aquifer. In the last few years, the aquifer has gained more importance because of the reduction in the diverted quantities of surface water. The aquifer is outcropping in several places. Recharge depends on rainfall and, to a lesser degree, on return flow from irrigation. The aquifer has yet to be studied in depth. The groundwater in this aquifer is supposed to always be saturated in sulfate ions (SO4--) the concentration ranging between 1400 and 1,500 mg/l which is beyond EU limits for drinking water (250 mg/l) but within the limits for irrigation (250 to 3,000 mg/l).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Pissouri West gypsum aquifer, the study site is indicated in green" title="">

Main ecosystems

Cyprus is a Mediterranean island, biogeographically isolated from the three regional continents and therefore the plant and animal species have evolved into endemic species. During the Neolithic and Chalcolithic eras, several species of large mammals (hippopotami and elephants) and alien plant species were introduced to the island. Cyprus is considered as a biodiversity “hotspot” area as it is the only center of birds’ endemism in Europe and the Middle East.

Flora

The Cyprus flora includes in total 1,910 taxa that are native or naturalized, among of which 143 are endemic. The percentage of endemics can reach over 20% within the Troodos mountains, where large numbers of endemic plants such as the cedar (Cedrus brevifolia) and the golden oak (Quercus alnifolia) grow. The varied microclimate and geology is the main reason for the high number of endemic species.

In the study site, the natural landscape is dominated by scrublands, the typical Mediterranean maquis, Garigue and Phrygana. This landscape has been formed by man-made activities such as forest destruction with subsequent periodic burning and overgrazing, followed by soil erosion. Where soil is not significantly eroded and factors such as slope, aspect and moisture are favorable, succession follows from phrygana to garigue and finally to maquis. Most of the shrubs are sclerophyllous of varied heights such as Calycotome villosa, Genista fasselata and Rhamnus oleoides. Trees are scattered in the area and consist mainly of Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua and Pinus species. The Bromus and Malva species are found among the shrubs and tree grasslands. For the purpose of the CASCADE project, plants in the area of interest were identified using the natural key system which is based on morphological characteristics such as structures of stems, roots and leaves, embryology and flowers. Plant parts were collected and photographed from an area of 50 ha.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Calycotome villosa" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Ceratonia siliqua" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Rhamnus oleoides" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Pistacia lentiscus" title="">

In total, 57 species were identified within the study site. Various types of shrub communities dominate in the thermo-Mediterranean semi-arid zones. It is a typical coastal zone with dry grasslands, shrubs and forest openings. Trees, shrubs and grass were observed among the species, where the most dominant ones in the area were Olea europaea, Calycotome villosa, Cistus parviflorus, Genista fasselata, Sinapis alba, Malva sylvestris and wild poaceae species. Eighteen plant families were observed (Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Cistaceae, Compositae, Ericaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Oleaceae, Papillionacea, Pinaceae, Poaceae, Ranumculaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Urticaceae and Zygophyllaceae).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Plants identified in Pissouri area" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Historical evolution of NDVI through time (green) corrected for bias using value from LandSat imagery (black circles)" title="">

A synoptic view of vegetation health and the associated function of ecosystems can be derived from analysis of archival and on-going sequences of NDVI. New estimations from LandSat imagery (black circles) at the exact locations of the study site were used to correct the global dataset for bias. NDVI in the study area shows no significant trend since the 1980s. Nevertheless, NDVI values are significantly low.

Fauna

Cyprus contains diverse fauna due to the fact that the island is at the crossroads of three continents and there is a wide range of habitats present on the island. The fauna includes endemic species of mammals, snakes and birds. The island is considered to be an important endemic region for birds from all over the world, while it constitutes one from the 8 most important migratory routes for the birds in Europe. Nine mammal species are included in the Annex of II Directive 92/43, and in particular one as priority. Two mammals are included in the Annex I of the Habitat Directive i.e. the Cyprus muflon (Ovis orientalis ophion) and fruitbat Rousettus aegyptiacus. More than 385 species of birds have been recorded in Cyprus, 53 as permanent residents and the rest as migratory. Twenty-four species of reptiles and 3 species of amphibians are documented. Four endemic subspecies of lizards and two endemic species of snake are reported, as well as two endemic subspecies. The Cypriot snake Coluber cypriensis and the grass snake Natrix natrix cypriaca are both endemic species of reptiles. The Cyprus snake Coluber cypriensis was added in Annexes II and IV of Directive 92/43/EEC, as priority species. It has been characterized as endangered (EN) by IUCN as the threats for this species increase mainly due to human activities and fires.
In the study site, fauna consists of birds, mammals, insects and reptiles. Birds include the species Αlectoris chukar, Coturnix coturnix, Tyto alba, Streptopelia turtur and Pica pica. Insects include Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera and Coleoptera. Mammals like Lepus capensis, Hemiechinus aurithus and Vulpes vulpes where observed during a night visit. Within the category of mammals, goats and sheep are included as domesticated and not wild animals.

Vegetation – soil system

In the study site, the main vegetation is consisted of Phrygana, mostly Calycotome villosa, Genista fasselata and Rhamnus oleoides. The selected plant for monitoring is R. oleoides which is the most common and at the same time, uniform in terms of shape and size.

Timeline of events

The brief event timeline shows the most important changes and milestones that occurred in the natural and social environment of Cyprus and the Randi Forest area.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Event timeline for Randi Forest since the 1970s" title="">

Socio-economic status

Pissouri has experienced continuous population growth. In 1881 there were 482, inhabitants, increasing to 956 in 1931, 1,072 in 1960, and 1,030 in 2973. The current permanent population in the Pissouri area is approximately 1,400 people, about half of whom are Cypriots and half of whom are expatriates, primarily from the United Kingdom.

Pissouri was a very traditional agricultural village, producing grapes, wine, potatoes and citrus fruits. There are also many olive, carob and almond trees in the area. Livestock grazing, especially sheep and goats, was also common. However, in recent years, farmers had to eradicate big part of their vineyards, as they became unprofitable and, instead, focused on housing development and the tourist industry in the south part of the village. This has led to a significant decline in the agricultural sector. The livestock sector was moved to the northwest area of Pissouri, which is where the study site is located.

Main Causes of Land Degradation

Human induced Drivers

Historically, the study area was predominately used for agriculture. However, in the last few decades, southern Pissouri was affected by expanded development and coastal urbanization. As a result, the agricultural land in the area was lost to building development. In the northern part of the area, the agricultural land remained uncultivated. After 1995, the lack of rainfall resulted in the decline of flora. As it could no longer be used for agriculture, the area north of Pissouri (the Randi Forest) was used for livestock grazing. Moreover, as the Pissouri cliffs, to the south of the Randi Forest, are considered a protected area the space available for livestock grazing was further minimized.

As the land in the area is not suitable for agriculture, it is used for livestock, in particular goats and sheep. The government allocated permits to licensed shepherds permitting grazing for approximately 600 goats and sheep. However, the actual number of animals grazing in Randi Forest is more than 3,700. Unlicensed shepherds are said to own another 1,240 animals that graze in this area. As a result, an additional 4,000 animals are estimated to graze in Randi Forest. The amount of land allocated within the area for grazing is around 1,000 ha, which is approximately 70% of Randi Forest. As a result of overgrazing and the dry climate, vegetation has significantly diminished. Moreover, livestock presents a significant source of pollution for both soil and groundwater reservoirs, resulting from the large quantities of liquid and solid waste from the farming activity.

Natural Drivers

The arid climate, coupled with soil erosion, prevent the proliferation of flora in the area. This is further affected by the overgrazing of the livestock population. A prolonged drought event took place during 1993-2001, only interrupted by a brief period of normal conditions in 1995. Droughts of shorter duration and intensity also took place around 1975 and 2008.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" SPI 48 estimated for the period 1963-2012 for Randi Forest" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Aridity index estimated for Randi Forest" title="">

What is interesting is a possibly significant negative trend observed both in the SPI and aridity data. While on average conditions do not appear to be on the extreme side of dry or arid, the situation has taken a turn to more distressing figures during the recent decades.

Indirect causes

Sheep and goats play an important role in the economy of Cyprus in terms of meat and milk production. Although goats and sheep take up 18% of value animal production (including both meat and milk), they cover 90% of demand for goat and sheep products (both meat and milk) so that only 10% of relevant products is imported. Goat and sheep milk make up 22% of the total milk production in Cyprus, with the remaining 78% coming from cattle.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Value of sheep and goat products" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Quantity of sheep and goat meat products" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Quantity of sheep and goat milk products" title="">

From 2000 to 2008, Cyprus faced a 34% decline in goat and sheep populations, due to the declining number of farming units, the aging farmer population and climate variability. The increase of protected areas in Cyprus has resulted in the relocation of the livestock around the Randi Forest area for grazing, increasing the amount of livestock in the area beyond that is permitted by the Government. As the Government does not strictly monitor the area, there is an over-abundance of goats and sheep for the area that resulted in the overgrazing that is evident in the study area.

Randi Forest, Cyprus: Drivers of change

2016-01-25T10:58:05+00:00

Authors:	Tsanis, I. K. and Daliakopoulos, I. N.
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Daliakopoulos, I. and Tsanis, I. (eds) 2014. Drivers of change in the study sites. CASCADE Project Deliverable 2.2. CASCADE Report 06. 59 pp.

In the Randi Forest Study Site, an NDVI trend break occurs during 1996-1998, disturbing the otherwise slightly increasing trend of vegetation greenness. This incident comes near the end of an extremely dry period, both as shown in the SPI48 plot and as perceived by the residents.

The system seems to recover after 1998-2000, with the nearby Asprokerammos dam overflowing in 2004 after record high precipitation (not shown here). Similar to Valencia though, the reduction of grazing licenses that was imposed in 2002 in Randi Forest has come too late to deter the problem. Before and after the NDVI discontinuity the seasonal component of the signal shows moderate variation. It is important to note that in Randi Forest the most significant transition took place when it was transformed from an actual Forest to a graze land.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Bimonthly NDVI, broken down into seasonal and deseasonalised components, against SPI48 for the period 1982 – 2003 for the Randi Forest Study Site" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" NDVI Seasonal component differences for the periods before and after trend shifts for the Randi Forest Study Site." title="">

Note: For an overview of the historical drivers of change and their analysis in all study sites see »Drivers of change in the study sites.

Randi Forest, Cyprus: Structural and functional changes

2016-01-14T11:29:46+00:00

Authors:	Alejandro Valdecantos and Ramón Vallejo (CEAM) with input from study sites
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Valdecantos & Vallejo. (2015) Report on structural and functional changes associated to regime shifts in Mediterranean dryland ecosystems. CASCADE Project Deliverable 5.1.

An area under pressure from grazing

The grazing degradation pressure resulted in a trend to decrease the total plant cover values in Randi field site with a significant decrease from 79.6 to 46.0%. We observed a great variability of plant cover in the three replicates of the Degraded state of the ecosystem with values running from 28.3 to 61.1%. Local conditions and/or pressure levels might be differentially acting in the three degraded plots.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Total plant cover in the Reference and Degraded states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

We found a total of 21 plant species in all Randi plots but only 7 were common to the Reference and the Degraded sites. Cistus creticus was the species with highest cover in the Reference sites with 36.7%, followed by Calicotome villosa, Lithodora hispidula and Pistacia lentiscus with 15.5, 15.3 and 12.0%, respectively. On the contrary, only one species of the Asteraceae family overcame 10% of cover in the Degraded sites (12.5%) while Sarcopoterium spinosum and C. villosa showed very similar and lower percentages (6.6 and 6.4%, respectively). We found a clear separation of the plots according to the degradation pressure after the PCA analysis that included all 21 species found. The first axis explained 45.8% of the variance and the second one an additional 22.7%. Plot separation was significant in the first axis where woody shrubs C. creticus, L. hispidula, Genista sphacelata, P. lentiscus and Rosmarinus officinalis were positively extracted (eigenvalues 0.858, 0.812, 0.760, 0.732 and 0.703, respectively) and the shrub Rhamnus oleoides, the bulb Asphodelus aestivus, and the herbaceous Trifolium campestre, Arum italicum and the Asteraceae were negatively extracted (eigenvalues of -0.937, -0.852, -0.740, -0.740 and 0.723, respectively). Reference plots showed positive values of PC1 associate to high woody shrub cover while Degraded plots showed negative values of this axis with more abundance of herbs and grasses. The second axis did not contribute to any further separation of plots under the different pressure states.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Plot distribution in Randi according to the two first axis of PCA conducted on plant cover. Plots are marked by the level of pressure." title="">

There are clear differences in biomass build up and its fractioning between plant life traits according to degradation in Randi forest plots. The biomass of grasses in the sampling in Spring 2015 in the Degraded sites is six times higher than in the Reference ones but the large variability among Degraded plots (from 0.83 to 5.12 Mg ha-¹) prevented significant differences to appear (t=1.387, p=0.238). The absence of grazing resulted in significant higher biomass of woody species and overall biomass (t=-4.293, p=0.013 and t=-3.229, p=0.32, respectively). Woody biomass was 3.5 times higher in the Reference than in the Degraded plots, mostly due to the high presence of Cistus creticus in the ungrazed plots (6.6 Mg ha-¹) while this species was absent in the Degraded ones. This lower development of shrubs resulted in sharp and significant (t=2.079, p=0.045) reduction of litter accumulation in the Degraded areas.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Biomass of grasses (top left), woody species (top right), total biomass (bottom left) and litter accumulation (bottom right) in the Reference and Degraded states in Randi field site. Mean, standard errors and significance are shown" title="">

Degradation did not affect the total number of plant species but, as mentioned above, it affected species identity. The average number of species per plot found in Randi was 10 and the Reference sites showed higher diversity according to the diversity and evenness indices. Shannon’s index was 1.76 and 0.99 in the Reference and Degraded plots, respectively, while the evenness was significantly lower (t=-2.605, p=0.060) in the Degraded than in the Reference (0.43 vs 0.75, respectively).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Number of species (left), Shannon-Wiener Index of diversity (center) and evenness (right) in the Reference and Degraded states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

We found a clear modification in the arrangement and morphology of vegetation patches and interpatches in relation to degradation. Firstly, 81.4% of the land in the Degraded communities was occupied by interpatches (soil, grasses and stones) while they occupied 51.2% of the Reference plots (t=11.205, p<0.001). In addition, these interpatches were more than two times larger in the Degraded than in the Reference (3.86 vs 1.54 m) but difference were not statistically significant (t=2.102, p=0.167). Similarly, the typology of patches (shrubs and subshrubs) was also significantly different between degradation states, with more than three times longer (t=-6.7018, p=0.003) and wider (t=2.968, p=0.092) patches in the Reference than in the Degraded. As a consequence, degraded sites presented higher connectivity between export/source areas and had small, scarce and dispersed patches of woody vegetation that affect ecosystem functioning.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Values of Interpatch length (top left), cover (top right), patch length (bottom left) and width (bottom right) in the Reference and Degraded states in Randifield site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

All three indices derived from the LFA assessment showed significant decreases as affected by degradation pressure. The highest differences were observed in the nutrient cycling index with a reduction from 45.8% in the Reference to 9.9% in the Degraded (t=-7.125, p=0.002). This represents a dramatic alteration of the maintenance and recycling of nutrient resources in the system. The infiltration index was also sharply reduced by grazing with a decrease from 52.8 to 20.8% (t=-7.771, p=0.001) with a significant impact on water conservation. The stability index was also significantly affected by grazing (t=-2.242, p=0.088) but differences were not as marked as for the previous two indices.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Values of the Stability, Infiltration and Nutrient Cycling indexes derived from LFA in the Reference and Degraded states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown" title="">

All the ecosystem services considered were severely affected by grazing. Water conservation (t=-4.062, p=0.015), soil conservation (t=-3.373, p=0.028), nutrient cycling (t=-4.003, p=0.016) and C sequestration (t=-4.152, p=0.014) showed significant losses due to grazing practices conducted on the sites. Biodiversity was also reduced but the magnitude of the loss was not significant (t=-1.474, p=0.215). The combination of all these results reveals a severe loss of environmental services in Randi associated to heavy grazing activities.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Standardized values (mean and standard errors) of the list of ecosystem services in Randi, as derived from combinations of the different variables acquired. Mean and standard errors are shown" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Losses or gains (negative and positive values, respectively) of assessed ecosystem properties in the Degraded areas of the Randi field site in relation to the References. Asterisks denote significant differences between ecosystem states. " title="">

All ecosystem properties were negatively affected by grazing. The positive values of biomass of interpatch lengths can be considered as a degradation effect of the given pressure. Only the biomass of grasses was promoted by grazing.

Note: For an overview of the structural and functional changes and their analysis in all study sites see »Structural and functional changes.

Randi Forest, Cyprus: Adaptation strategies for changing conditions

2015-06-08T11:37:33+00:00

Authors:	Cecelia De Ita, Lindsay Stringer, Luuk Fleskens, Andy Dougill, with input from study sites
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	De Ita et al. (2015) Report on stakeholder adaptation strategies in the CASCADE study sites. CASCADE Project Deliverable 8.1.

Among the changes mentioned by the stakeholders in Randi Forest, Cyprus are: invasion of exotic species, soil erosion, droughts, expansion of shrubland and changes in wildlife and vegetation. The main drivers quoted were overgrazing, droughts and forest logging (100% agreement between stakeholders on logging) and wildfires.

Table: Summary of the drivers of change identified by stakeholders in Randi Forest, Cyprus.

	NGO	Government Representative	Land users (Shepherds)	Environmental Managers (forestry department, fire brigade, wildlife services)
Overgrazing	X	X	X	X
Plagues, diseases	X	X		X
Wildfires	X	X		X
Droughts	X	X	X	X
Erosion	X	X		X
Forest logging	X	X	X	X
Outlawing of hunters				X

Stakeholders reported that changes in Randi Forest started in 1930, when logging for firewood was approved by the authorities. Negative effects of wildfires and land use changes were also recalled, however, these exceeded the time scale requested by the research. Members of the city council recalled: “Old people in the village reported the cutting of the Randi forest in the 1930s: British authorities gave licences to the locals to cut the trees and use them as fire wood”. Furthermore, changes in the original vegetation occurred within the last century, as recalled by an 83 year old shepherd: “They say it used to be a forest. Since I remember, the area was covered by annual vegetation and shrubs”.

When asked about their response to changes, only shepherds and wildlife services mentioned that they were actively doing something. The environmental department mentioned that the area was included in a Natura 2000 project, while the fire brigade did not provide an answer. The environmental department participant explained that as it was private land, the public authorities are not authorized to intervene on it, although along with the wildlife services department, they did patrol the area. Land users and the city council mentioned environmental management measures such as use of rat baits, road cleaning, making land terraces to stop erosion, and planting trees as some of the measures being used.

Table: Summary of future expectations, alternative land management options and policy/economic support required by stakeholder groups in Randi Forest, Cyprus.

Stakeholder Group	What future regime changes do you expect?	What alternative land management options will you consider?	What policy / economic support is required to facilitate the adaptations and changes you mentioned?
Environmental managers (belonging to the state)	• More erosion. • Increase in thorny shrubs that may provide shelter for wild animals. However, they also act as kindle to fuel fires. Vegetation will decrease, thorny shrubs may cause fire, and erosion will increase.	• Cultivate olive and carob trees • Fence some areas to stop overgrazing • Create terraces to stop erosion • New plantations to stop erosion	• Subsidies for shepherds for less extensive grazing • Use of plants resistant to drought. • Provide the shepherds or the community council with olive and carob trees. • Provide alternative areas for the shepherds to establish their farms • Control construction • Control overgrazing and snake hunting, as snakes help to control the rats
Pissouri city council	• Shepherds will abandon their farms. • Less vegetation may result in more rats coming to the village. • More erosion	• Cultivate olive and carob trees. • Plant trees to stop erosion	• Subsidize shepherds to stop intensive grazing • Provide rat baits.
Land users	• Soil erosion • Only thorny shrubs resistant to drought will survive.	• Only grow olive trees and carob trees • Grow plants resistant to drought. • Create terraces to stop erosion	• Cutting of the thorny shrubs and provision of young trees or economic support. • Support for shepherds to provide dry food to the goats and stop grazing.

Note: For an overview results of the workshops on identifying adaptation strategies in all study sites and the concluding recommendations see »Adaptation strategies.

Randi Forest, Cyprus: Restoration potential for preventing and reversing regime shifts

2017-03-21T14:29:26+00:00

Authors:	Alejandro Valdecantos (CEAM),V. Ramón Vallejo (UB), Susana Bautista (UA), Matthijs Boeschoten (UU), Michalakis Christoforou (CUT), Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos (TUC), Oscar González-Pelayo (UAVR), Lorena Guixot (UA), J. Jacob Keizer (UAVR), Ioanna Panagea (TUC), Gianni Quaranta (UNIBAS), Rosana Salvia (UNIBAS), Víctor Santana (UAVR), Dimitris Tsaltas (CUT), Ioannis K. Tsanis (TUC)
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Valdecantos, A. et al. (2016) Report on the restoration potential for preventing and reversing regime shifts. CASCADE Project Deliverable 5.2 104 pp

Results highlights

Restoration by long-term grazing exclusion increased plant cover, litter accumulation and aboveground biomass to similar levels found in the undisturbed reference areas
Plant composition and spatial structure of vegetation (cover and size of patches and interpatches) also reflected differences in the three ecosystem states
Ecosystem functioning, mainly nutrient cycling and infiltration, is sharply improved in the restored areas but are still far to the values observed in the references
The five ecosystem services calculated did not show differences between the Restored and the Reference areas and were significantly improved form the Degraded lands
Restoration in Randi can be considered as successful with the approach followed in the project

The passive restoration in Randi significantly increased plant cover percentage from the Degraded areas to the same values than the References. Plant cover in the Degraded plots is 46.0% and the Reference and Restored are 79.6 and 83.8%, respectively (Figure 1). The Restored plots showed the highest average number of vascular plants (12.7) in contrast to the Degraded and the undisturbed reference (9.3 and 10.3, respectively). The two diversity indexes evaluated (Shannon-Wiener’s and evenness) showed similar trends in the three states of the ecosystem (Figure 2): the Degraded areas presented the lowest values of both indexes and the Restored reached the same values than the Reference. Shannon’s doubled from 1.0 to 2.0 while the evenness moved from 0.43 to 0.77.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 1. Total plant cover (left) and species richness (right) in the Reference, Degraded and Restored states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters denote significant differences." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 2. Shannon-Wiener Index of diversity (left) and evenness (right) in the Reference, Degraded and Restored states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters denote significant differences." title="">

Twenty-three species were found in Randi but only six species were present in the three ecosystem states. The References were characterized by high cover of shrubs like Cistus creticus (36.7%), Calycotome spinosa (15.5%), Lithodora hispidula (15.3%) and Pistacia lentiscus (12.0%). Other key species that were only present in the undisturbed areas were, in addition to P. lentiscus, Pinus halepensis and Rosmarinus officinalis. The Degraded state showed low plant cover and most of it was due to a species of the family Asteraceae (undetermined) with 12.5%. Sarcopoterium spinosum is the most abundant species in the Restored areas (25.1%) with an extended cover of an unidentified grass (24.7%) and, in a lesser extent, C. spinosa (11.1%). The graphical representation of the two first axis of the Principal Component Analysis on plant cover data clearly grouped the plots by state (Figure 3). PC1 and PC2 explained 30.9 and 19.2% of the variance and, hence, jointly explained more than half of it. The extraction of species along the first two components of the PCA is shown in Annex I. Reference plots showed the lowest values of the PC1 and separated these plots from the other two groups. Degraded and Restored plots separated along the second axis, with higher and more heterogeneous values of the restored plots.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 3. Distribution of Reference, Degraded and Restored plots in Randi field site according to the two first axis of PCA conducted on plant cover." title="">

Biomass accumulation in the different components of the ecosystem of the restored areas is more similar to the references than to the degraded lands (Figures 4 and 5). Degraded areas showed relatively high amounts of herbaceous biomass and low litter and biomass of woody species. The Restored plots significantly increased the woody biomass (from 3.4 to 9.5 Mg/ha) and the litter accumulation on the ground (20 times larger in the restored than in the degraded) while the biomass of grasses was slightly reduced by the restoration. None of the three biomass components (woodies, grasses and litter) were significantly different in the Restored than in the Reference plots. Total biomass in the Restored areas was two times higher that of the Degraded ones (Figure 5).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 4. Biomass of herbaceous (left) and woody vegetation in the Reference, Degraded and Restored states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters denote significant differences. Note different scales in the Y-axes." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 5. Litter accumulation (left) and total biomass (right) in the Reference, Degraded and Restored states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters denote significant differences.Note different scales in the Y-axes." title="">

Both the spatial distribution and size of patches and interpatches were significantly affected by restoration (Figure 6). The percentage of land covered by interpatches was reduced from 87.1% in the degraded areas to 61.0% in the restored, much closer to the 51.4% observed in the references. Also the length of the interpatches was lower in the restored than in the Degraded (1.5 and 3.9 m, respectively). Conversely, the size of the patches in the restored plots were among the size of the reference and the degraded areas. Average patch size in the degraded plots were 0.53 m long and 0.81 m wide while in the restored plots they averaged 1.01 m long and 1.98 m wide.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 6. Values of Interpatch length (top left), cover (top right), patch length (bottom left) and width (bottom right) in the Reference, Degraded and Restored states in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters show significant differences." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 7. Values of the Stability, Infiltration and Nutrient Cycling indexes derived from LFA in the Reference, Degraded and Restored plots in Randi field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters show significant differences." title="">

The largest changes in LFA derived indexes were observed in nutrient cycling and infiltration (Figure 7). These two indexes were significantly improved by restoration, from 9.9 to 29.8% the former and from 20.8 to 34.0% the latter. However, reference plots still showed higher values of the three indexes, especially infiltration and nutrient cycling. Changes in stability were minor and not significant.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 8. Standardized values of the list of ecosystem services in Randi, as derived from combinations of the different variables acquired. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 9. Losses or gains (negative and positive values, respectively) of assessed ecosystem properties in the Restored areas of the Randi field site in relation to the Degraded. Asterisks denote significant differences between ecosystem states (*: 0.10<p<0.05; **: 0.05<p<0.01; ***: p<0.01)." title="">

All calculated ecosystem services but biodiversity were improved in the restored plots in relation to the degraded ones as well as the averaged combination of the five services assessed (Figure 8). Biodiversity was the service that released he highest increase (1.47) but the heterogeneity of the variables included in this service in the different replicates of each ecosystem state prevented significant differences. Nutrient cycling (1.45) and water conservation (1.40) also showed large increase after restoration. All individual services and also their combination showed no difference between the restored and the reference areas suggesting a high effectiveness of the restoration measures (grazing exclusion) in improving ecosystem services.

Figure 9 summarizes the relative changes of the measured and calculated ecosystem properties in the restored in relation to the degraded state of Randi ecosystems. The largest increase in litter accumulation and, in a lesser extent, the build up of woody biomass and patch size led to a significant improvement of nutrient cycling and infiltration indexes.The three properties that showed negative values (herbaceous biomass, and interpatch cover and length) can also be considered as positive symptoms to the recovery of a healthy ecosystem closer to the reference target state.

Note: For full references to papers quoted in this article see

» References

Randi Forest, Cyprus: Stakeholder workshop to evaluate SLM guidelines and scenario analysis

2017-07-05T11:43:40+00:00

Main authors:	Cecilia De Ita, Lindsay C. Stringer, Luuk Fleskens, Diana Sietz
Contributing authors:	Ioannis K. Tsanis, Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos, Ioanna Panagea, Michalakis Christoforou, Giovanni Quaranta, Rosanna Salvia, Sandra Valente, Cristina Ribeiro, Cláudia Fernandes, Oscar González-Pelayo, Jan Jacob Keizer, Alejandro Valdecantos, V. Ramón Vallejo and Susana Bautista
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	De Ita, C. et al. (2017) Report on multi-scale evaluation of CASCADE's management principles and grazing model scenarios with stakeholders and policy makers. CASCADE Project Deliverable 8.3 69 pp

In the Pissouri region, the land belongs to and remains under the control of the Forest Department, who commissions its use to shepherds. Workshops in Cyprus were held on two dates with different stakeholders in order to avoid conflict between a) shepherds and local authorities and b) land managers and researchers from governmental departments and academia. Contrasting opinions are held between the two groups and CASCADE researchers were mindful not to exacerbate these positions. During the two meetings, CASCADE’s principles and recommendations for overgrazing were discussed, as well as the different grazing scenarios (see »Improving SLM using land management scenario analysis).

A first meeting was held with the land users from Pissouri including shepherds and local authorities on 28th of January 2017, while on the 6th of February 2017 a second meeting was held with representatives from government departments (Forest, Environment, Agriculture, Wildlife, Fire) and the Faculty of Geotechnical Sciences and Environmental Management at CUT (see Figure 1).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 1. Participants in CASCADE’s overgrazing workshop in Cyprus." title="">

Stakeholders’ perceptions of grazing principles in Cyprus

The two meetings produced different results. In the second meeting, the stakeholders from all departments and the University agreed on the proposed principles, however, in the previous meeting shepherds disagreed with some principles, as outlined below.

For descriptions of the principles discussed here, see »Guidelines for land managers: the overgrazing context_EN

During the meetings with both shepherds and government representatives in Cyprus, regarding principle 1 “Reduction of vegetation increases soil erosion, leading to less fertile soil and less productive pastures” stakeholders mentioned that they realized the land was being degraded. Shepherds shared the narrative of Randi Forest being greener 100 years ago. They also have a point of comparison of the effect of grazing, as a highway was introduced in the 1990s that divided grazing areas from non-grazed areas. The effects of both kinds of management on the vegetation have helped them to understand the consequences of overgrazing.

Shepherds viewed some principles to be contrary to traditional practices. The discrepancy is mostly due to local beliefs rather than environmental and management evidence. The contentious principles are principles 2 “Integrating trees and pastures has ecological and socio-economic benefits”, 3 “Pest management requires an integrated ecosystem approach to promote natural predators” and 4 “Animal types and herd composition influence plant diversity and health”. The shepherds disagreed with the second principle, regarding integrating trees and pastures. Traditionally olive (Olea europaea) and carob (Ceratonia siliqua) trees have not been cultivated, and some hold the belief that these species are not easy to grow. However, after a discussion started by the youngest shepherd present, almost all the participants (with the exception of the eldest shepherd) agreed with the feasibility of the principle. As regards principle 3, all stakeholders disagreed with protecting the snakes, as traditionally they are hunted. Nowadays, shepherds are also hunting other important predators such as foxes, as they believe they destroy partridge eggs.

Stakeholders agreed with principle 5 “Controlled grazing reduces risk of fires, and maintains grass species and productivity of pastures” and with the rationale and criteria of principle 6, advocating for stopping grazing after a fire. Some shepherds mentioned that rotational grazing has had positive outcomes, and some suggested to keep some areas closed for longer, i.e. for more than 5 years. Rotating grazing areas was considered feasible by shepherds and government representatives. Some shepherds stated that grazing is not providing any food to herds, due to the degree of desertification on the land, therefore they already have to provide supplementary feed. However the shepherds perceived that they could only use rotational grazing if they are allowed to increase herd numbers, as this would allow them to increase individual income. According to local government representatives, the use of rotational grazing can be useful to prevent fires too. Shepherds also stated that the CASCADE workshops were the first time that any initiative had explained the consequences of overgrazing and the potential impacts on environmental services in the future. This indicates a strength of the participatory approach followed in the project.

In the second meeting, the stakeholders from all departments and the University agreed on the proposed principles. They also suggested the following relating to rotational grazing:

Keep the animals in specific pasture areas and allow grazing using a rotational pasture system
Divide the area into 3-5 large zones and allow grazing through rotation to control vegetation.
Use rotational grazing to avoid fires and make firebreaks

After discussing the management principles, the management scenarios and the management suggestions resulting from the model were discussed with the stakeholders.

Stakeholders’ perceptions of findings from the scenario analysis

All the stakeholders agreed with the premise that the model simulations reflect the vegetation trends towards degradation and recovery in the study sites. In Table 1 the answers to the questions and responses of the workshop participants can be seen. The shepherds recalled how 30 years ago, the vegetation cover was around 50%, and 250 animals used to graze the area. Therefore, the model makes sense, as it meant recovering previous conditions. During the second stakeholder workshop with non–pastoralists, the participants were unable to answer questions about how realistic the model simulations are, but suggested looking at past aerial photographs.

Shepherds in the first workshop mentioned that they could comply with using rotational grazing as a measure to allow vegetation to regrow in specific areas. Non-pastoralists in the second workshop agreed with the feasibility of rotational grazing, and even with stopping grazing for a number of years.

Question 3 was not fully applicable in this study site as vegetation has not been successfully restored, and sites with natural regeneration have the thorny shrub Callicotome vilosa, which is a potential fire fuel.

Table 1. Responses to questions 1) Do the model simulations realistically reflect trends of vegetation degradation and recovery observed in the study sites and 2) Considering the model simulations, do the management principles and recommendations make sense for the study sites? What key aspects would need to be changed? 13 participants across the two workshops answered the questions. The shepherd answers are in white, non-pastoralists answers are in blue shaded boxes.

Participant	Q1	Q2	Notes on Question 1	Notes on Question 2
1	yes	yes	-	Agreed that the vegetation Cover was around 50% 30 years ago and 250 animals used to graze
2	yes	yes	Allow us to increase the number of animals and reduce the amount of grazing animals or do not allow grazing
3	yes	yes	-
4	yes	yes	-
5	yes	yes	Keep the animals in specific pasture areas and allow grazing using a rotational pasture system
6	yes	yes	Keep the animals in specific pasture areas and allow grazing using a rotational pasture system	*Vegetation Cover was more than 50%, 30 years ago and the British used to allow only 72 goats to graze per livestock in the Randi Forest
7	yes	yes		I do not know
8	yes	yes	Divide the area into 3-5 large zones allow grazing through rotation in order to control vegetation.	The area is overgrazed and the number of animals grazed in 25 ha is three times larger. The animals should continue to graze on a controlled basis in order not to allow the Callicotome to expand in the area and convert into biofuel. Also the milk products from the Pissouri area have the advantage of origin¹. We shouldn’t lose that.
9	yes	yes	I agree with 10 years of non-grazing in order for the vegetation to recover. After 8-10 years we should allow controlled grazing in order to prevent possible fires due to the shrubs. Also, if the area is too crowded with animals them some should move elsewhere.	I do not know.
10	yes	no	I believe that vegetation will need more than 10 years to recover. Grazing should stop.	I do not know.
11	yes	yes	Divide the area into zones and allow grazing through rotation in order to control vegetation.	I do not know.
12	yes	yes	Use rotational grazing.	You may find the answer from aerial pictures taken by the British during the 1960s.
13	yes	yes	Use rotational grazing in order to avoid fires and make firebreaks.	I do not know.

¹With the term advantage of origin, the stakeholder meant that animal produce in the Randi Forest, has a specific quality and flavour due to the presence of specific herbs grazed by animals, therefore milk and cheese have some characteristics (texture and aroma) unique for the Randi area.

Note: For full references to papers quoted in this article see

» References