Description of the study site

General information

The Castelsaraceno Study Site is situated in the south-west of the Basilicata region of Southern Italy. Castelsaraceno has a surface area of 74.3 km² and a population of 1,507 with a density of 20.28 inhabitants per km² (less than on third  of the Basilicata Region). The study site straddles two national parks, the National Park of Pollino and the Lucano Apennine Val d’Agri Lagonegrese National Park, a vast protected area of Basilicata region including the Agri River and some of the highest peaks of the Lucano Apennines.

Castelsaraceno is representative of the most important environmental and socio-economic features of Basilicata region, which has particular climatic conditions that are influenced by its orographic nature and proximity to the Tyrrhenian and Ionian seas. There is a typical Mediterranean climate along the Ionian coast up to 500 – 600 m, characterised by scarce rainfall concentrated during the autumn-winter period and by summer drought. Above these altitudes and up to 2000 m the climate is temperate-cold with mild dry summers. At higher zones, and  towards the Tyrrhenian Sea, the climate is cold and rainy. The geomorphology of the region reflects its geological and lithological nature, with both volcanic and calcareous mountains and plains made up of gravel, sand, clay and flysch, alluvial plains, fluvial terraces and alluvial cones with abundant gravel and clay-silt deposits, undergoing erosion. These calanchi (badlands) are a type of terrain with clay-rich soil, typical of the Basilicata region, characterizing most of its internal hilly areas. The complex alternating situations and economic and environmental importance of this region make it ideal for an analysis of the components affecting the different stages of environmental sensibility.

Topography

Castelsaraceno stands at 916 m but ranges from 675 m (Acqua di San Giovanni) to 1,861 m (summit of Mount Alpi). The area is bordered to the north by Mount Raparo (1,764 m), which offers protection from northerly winds, to the south by Mount Alpi, Mount Armizzone and Armizzoncello, to the west by Pietra Marina Castelveglio, to the north-east by a wide valley and to the east by a horizontal line of mountain ranges which includes the peaks of Tuppetto and Mount Asprella.

The territory of Castelsaraceno covers two hydro-geological basins, the larger Agri river basin and the smaller Sinni river basin. The Sinni river basin has predominantly mountainous and hilly morphological characteristics. The highest peaks in the territory are situated along the western and south-western border of the basin, one of which is Mount Alpi (1,892 m) and part of the Castelsaraceno territory is made up of an area with Mesozoic mountain series made of: siliceous limestone strata with intercalations of marl and clay with varying thickness; alternations of polychrome and radiolariti siliceous argillaceous rocks in thin strata; silciferous and siliceous argillaceous stone. The area is also characterised by severe erosion and diffuse landslides. As for hydro-geological characteristics of the territory, this part of the basin is characterised by a calcareous system and a dolomitic system with high permeability, which explains the presence of large aquifers.

Geology and soils

The municipality of Castelsaraceno is situated in the Apennine mountain chain whose tectonic units derive from the complete inversion of basins, separated by platforms, formed following the tectonic extension of the middle and late Triassic period. The paleo-geographic domains have originated from Mesozoic tectonic units that constitute the Apennine Chain (tectonic units that are overlapping from Miocene epoch). From West to East stands the Liguride unit formation, resulting from the deformation of the Tethys oceanic domain, which stands above the Apennine platform. In turn, this unit lies tectonically above the sediments of the Lagonegrese basin, characterized by numerous folds and over thrusts. The Sicilide and Irpine units emerge more frequently in the front portion of the chain. The Sicilide Units mainly consist of shale and severely deformed marls, whilst the Irpine Units are characterized by silico-clastic sediments, which record the progressive deformation of the Apennine chain.

Castelsaraceno also lies within one of the most complex areas of the Southern Italy Apennines. In fact this area has the typical southern Italian Apennine alignments NW – SE and N – S with also the directions W – E and WNW – ESE which characterise the structures of the neighbouring Calabria region. The basin of the river Agri is also predominantly mountainous and includes Mount Raparo (1,764 m). It is characterised by limestone, dolomites, calcareous debris in strata and slabs–in places intensely fractured or with section formations of cataclastic rock. This area is also characterised by frequent landslides.

The carbonates formed between the late Triassic and the Tertiary (Neocene) periods in an area of the platform span between the Liguride domain and the Lagonegrese Basin. They separate the complex into three units, characterised by sequences of varying thickness and facies and are therefore found in different paleo-geographic positions within a large area characterised by carbonate sedimentation. Mount Alpi is a limestone massif situated in the South-West of the Lucano Apennines. The chain is made up of a large Mesozoic carbonate sequence, around 1,000 m in facies, on which stand two distinct Neocene cycles. The oldest formations are limestone, dolomitic limestone and well-stratified dolomites passing to calcilutites (cement rock) with intercalations of oolitic limestone in higher layers. This sequence from the middle Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous epoch forms the backbone of Mount Alpi.

The following soils are present in the Castelsaraceno area:

• in hilly and mountainous areas with Mesozoic and Tertiary limestone rocks chalky soils are found;
• in the Apennines and anti-Apennine reliefs with tertiary sedimentary rocks such as marl sandstone and clay flysch there are high mountain marly soils and soils from central reliefs with rugged morphology;
• on the surfaces of the Bradanica trench with Pliocene deposits (fluvial deposits) soils of sandy hills and conglomerate rocks of the Basin of St. Archangel are found together with soils from floodplains.

Land Use

Most of the area is covered with broad-leaved forest. Only a small part of the surface is dedicated to agriculture and discontinuous urban fabric. Between the 1990s and 2000, land use remained more or less the same with the majority of the territory covered by broad-leaved forest and land principally used for agriculture with natural vegetation and an absence of non-irrigated arable land and sclerophyllus vegetation, mixed forest and bare rock.

After 2000, the area underwent substantial changes, to a large extent due to the significant reduction of population because of the continuing rural exodus affecting the area caused by lack of vital infrastructure and also in part due to the shift away from farming and towards occupations in other economic sectors. Land dedicated to traditional agricultural practices and self-sufficiency farming covers a limited area of Castelsaraceno and is concentrated in the area within the Park of Pollino and in the Sinni river basin; a large part of the territory is, instead, covered by natural grassland and broad-leaved forest. Land cover under transition is noteworthy and there has been a progressive encroachment of pastures towards woods and shrubland as well as variations in the use of Utilised Agricultural Area.

Climate

Castelsaraceno is characterised by a humid temperate climate with around 68% of rainfall occurring during winter months and 15% in summer months. There is a difference in annual precipitation levels between the Agri and Sinni river basins. The Agri basin receives between 900 mm and 1,700 mm a year although the eastern areas receive just 200 mm. The Sinni river basin and the south-west area receive between 900 mm and 1,300 mm a year whilst the NE areas receive just 200 mm. The municipality of Castelsaraceno itself has very high levels of rainfall, with an average at around 1,290 mm a year or about 108 mm/month. There has been a slight decline in monthly rainfall over time.

The average temperature in winter months is 4.2 °C with humidity at 76%, whilst summer months' average temperature is around 22 °C with humidity at 56%. Average annual temperatures in both basins are more or less stable at between 12 °C and 15 °C. The NW areas of the Agri basin have an average temperature of 16-17 °C as does the eastern areas of both basins. The Sinni basin, however, shows average temperatures of 12-15 °C in 80% of its territory. Over the available record, temperature shows a significant upward trend of about 0.5 °C per decade with an annual mean of 9 °C Nevertheless, it is possible that this trend is part of a larger oscillation and that the past two decades have been at the warm part of the cycle. The potential evaporation is estimated at 1,230 mm.

Hydrogeology

Castelsaraceno straddles two hydro-geographic basins, the Agri river basin and the Sinni river basin. Both basins are similar in terms of hydrology. In fact, both are characterised by significant numbers of springs, high precipitation levels and higher minimum and maximum flow rates than other basins in the region. In terms of stratification and structure, the calcareous-dolomite complex of both Mount Alpi and Mount Raparo are characterised by high permeability and so contribute to the size of the aquifers.

The Sinni basin receives water flow from Mount Alpi, whose springs (La Calda with average flow rate equal to 280 l/s and Caldanella with 18 l/s) provide Sinni with constant water flow. The water flow from Mount Raparo (with the spring Varco Laino with average flow rate of 154 l/s and Prastiolo with average flow rate of 55 l/s) feeds the river Agri.

In terms of hydrography and geology in the area there are:

1. high permeable calcareous complexes with high fragmentation and dolomitic complexes with medium to high permeability based on the state of fragmentation (hydro-structure M. Raparo);
2. clay-marl complex with low to zero permeability;
3. sandy-conglomeratic complex with medium-high to medium-low permeability based on the thickness and cementation of deposits.

Water quality

In 1997 the Basilicata Region started a program to monitor surface water, ground water and sea water quality. The Agri and Sinni rivers have generally good quality of water, thanks also to the relatively low numbers of industries and large urbanised centres (most inhabited centres do not exceed 5,000 inhabitants). Principal stress factors are agricultural and tourism sector activities. The value of dissolved oxygen and BOD5, metal concentrates (Cd, Hg and Pb), total ammonia and non-ionized ammonia concentrations, values do not exceed limits set out in Dir. 98/83/EC.

Flora

In the past agricultural areas were more extensive, but are now largely abandoned or used by wild animals for pasture. Nowadays, four distinct areas can be identified; Mediterranean macchia on the plains extending to 400 m; sub-mountainous oak and chestnut woodlands (400-1000 m); mountain beech and conifer woodlands (the latter in the Pollino area: 1000-2000 m) and, finally, alpine pasture. The hilly part of the region with vast pastureland includes chestnut groves, vineyards as well as olive groves on lower land. The flora in the study area significantly varies with open shrubland and grassland plains to termo xerophile and mesophile brush which have evolved in the area due to human induced impacts on the territory since ancient times (pasture and deforestation). Forest formations include (a) cerreta Malboschetto (forest of Cerris) and mixed plant communities of Turkey Oak and the Downy Oak degraded to differing degrees along the southern slopes of Mount Alpi and (b) Beech wood forests which stand at 1,200 to 1,750 m and cover the eastern, northern and western scope of the Alpi S.Croce formation.

Mountainous and hilly pastures are, instead, very diffuse and principally include:

1. Arid pastures with predominance of Eryngium campestre, Cynosurus cristatus, Ononis spinosa, Lolium perenne, Trifolium repens, (Pleum hirsutum, Cichorium intybus, Brachypodium pinnatum, Cirsium vulgare and, sporadically, Spartium junceum, Chrisanthemum leucanthemum, Inula viscosa), Dorycnium pentaphyllum. The pastures are found between 1,000 and 1,400m and are relatively evenly distributed over the territory and have the physiognomic characteristic of Cynosurus cristatus. Pastures with clearings between watersheds occupied by beech forests and the summit area are physiognomically dominated by Festuca circummediterranea and Bromus erectus.
2. Open steppa populations, on eroded soils to a greater or lesser degree, with Spartium junceum, Calamintha nepeta, Teucrium polium, Teucrium chamaedrys, Bromus erectus, Sideritis syriaca, Helicrysum italicum, Scabiosa crenata and Stipa austroitalica to name just the most important species. In the locality of Pietra Longa and Tempa Carlone these groupings are dominated by large populations of Quercus ilex rupicoli.
3. Sodaglie (fallow and untilled soils) to Pteridium aquilinum, in which Carlina acaulis, Digitalis ferruginea, Centaurium erythraea are found.

Largely diffuse are also:

1. Thermo-xerophilous bushes, linked to stages of degradation (or evolution) of Sesille Oak forests. In addition to Quercus pubescens, the bushy layer is essentially made up of Prunus spinosa, Crateagus monogyna, Pyrus amygdaliformis, Spartium junceum and Alnus cordata. In the less arid areas: Ulmus minor with infiltrations of Quercus cerris and Fagus sylvatica.
2. Thermophile woods with prevalently Quercus pubescens and Alnus cordata, with Carpinus orientalis and Pyrus amygdaliformis, sometimes with conifers.
3. Mesophyll woods Alnus cordata and Fagus sylvatica, with Quercus cerris, Acer pseudo-platanus, Acer campestre, and underwood with meadows and areas of woodland plants (nemorali).

Some areas, such as Mount Teduro and Tempa Carlone, have been reforested, almost exclusively with Pino Nero (Black Pine) species, which often did not produce the anticipated results and even after many years have generally produced extremely impoverished forest populations. A synoptic view of the vegetation health and the associated function of ecosystems reveals a slight upward trend since the 1980s.

Fauna

The territory of Castelsaraceno has a large variety of fauna, as it is located between two large protected areas (the National Parks of Pollino and Val d’Agri-Lagonegrese). All principal species of mammals found in the southern Apennines are present in the local territory. Carnivores present include a discreet population of wolves (Canis lupus), wild cats (Felis silvestris) and others, which are found in the various water courses with good vegetation cover along the river banks. Rivers and humid environments represent an ideal habitat for various species of some migratory birds such as Black Storks (Ciconia nigra) and White Storks (Ciconia ciconia). Higher altitudes, above 1,500 m, are home to larger predatory birds such as the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and the Common Raven (Corvus corax). At slightly lower altitudes in the oldest forest areas the Great Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) can be seen, whilst hilly areas are particularly inhabited with Red Kites (Milvus milvus) and the common Buzzard (Buteo buteo). In more humid areas, the Black Kite (Milvus migrans) and the Western March Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) can be seen. Other significant population includes wild boar (Sus scrofa) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Finally, aside the common European hare (Lepus europaeus), some groups of Apennine hares (Lepus corsicanus) native to central-southern Italy continue to thrive.

The principal source of income for local inhabitants remains agriculture and as such the local territory registers high levels of sheep and goat livestock farming and, to a lesser degree, cattle farming. Livestock composition has seen significant changes over the course of the last century. Data from the Agricultural Census shows that during 1970-1990 livestock numbers increased significantly, also in line with the increased standards of living and, consequently, the increase in pro capita buying power and demand for meat and dairy products. Nevertheless, mainly due to low competitive capacity of the Castelsaraceno livestock systems, also exacerbated by strictly enforced EU regulation, from the beginning of the 21st century, livestock numbers are in decline. The last decade shows a very dramatic reduction of livestock sector due to an accelerated dismantling in rural population. There has been an internal shift among different animal species (increase in the number of cattle which are less labor intensive and reduction of the number of sheep and goats that require more and continuous labor).

Vegetation – soil system

The “Piano dei campi” block shows well evolved and very deep soil, characterized by a powerful and reddish argillic (clayey) horizon. Soils in the block have loamy topsoil and a clayey-loamy soil in depth with coarse fragment ranging from common to abundant. They have moderately high permeability and good drainage. The dominant species is the Stipa austroitalica. The “Mount Alpi” block soils are loamy with umbric epipedon and variable coarse fraction content. Soils in the block show a loamy texture and a coarse fraction ranging from scarce to frequent. They are not calcareous and their pH is sub-acid on the surface and acid in the depth. The permeability is low and the drainage is good. The dominant species is the Stipa austroitalica. The “Favino” block includes deep clay and calcareous soils, with frequent coarse fraction on the surface and abundant in depth. Their permeability is low and drainage is good. They have derived mainly from the alteration of clayey marls (argillaceous marls). The dominant species is the Brachypodium rupestre. In degraded plots vegetation significantly changes, due to mismanagement of pasture. These ecosystems are characterized by lower presence and reduced quality of dominant species together with the disappearance of shrubs. This trend is observed in all three blocks regardless of their general but not substantial difference in soil parameters.

Socioeconomic status

The Basilicata region’s abundance of rural features is ascribable to its geographic positioning in relation to the largest hubs of socio-economic activity. In fact the area’s orography, together with its limited resources for agricultural activities, the lack of sustainable resources management (especially for forests), the isolation in which the area existed for many years and the diffusion of hydro-geological instabilities have produced a state of high environmental fragility in the region. The rural economy has for centuries been the pillar of the local economy and the principal source of income for the population. However, over the last few decades the local identity has undergone significant transformation, a sign of an invisible break between local people and their territory. Castelsaraceno is a small rural community characterized by small farms. Scarce local resources make profitability very low in the agricultural sector which is affected by a structural weakness at a local level. Livestock farming is widespread in all local farms with small number of animals managed by family run businesses. The most common livestock reared are cattle, sheep and goats, given that the production and processing of milk is probably the most important agricultural activity in economic terms. The most common form of feeding livestock remains grazing which, as discussed previously, is often carried our without a rational use of the natural resources available, thereby causing serious damage to local sources of fodder crops. Shortcomings in the livestock farming sector in the local area can also be traced back to the advanced age of most local farmers, as well as their low levels of formal education. Moreover, problems arise from the fragmented structure of land, which does not facilitate the supply of food which the cattle need. Local sheep and goat meat is sold, usually by weight, to local traders or directly from farmer to consumers. The periods of greatest demand obviously coincide with holidays such as Christmas and Easter. Local milk is processed directly on farm and cow and goat milk is usually milked manually.

Timeline of events

A brief event timeline of the most important changes and milestones that occurred in the natural and social environment of Castelsaraceno is shown below.

Main Causes of Land Degradation

Human induced Drivers

Removal of natural vegetation, deforestation: The Castelsaraceno Study Site has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Towards the end of the 8th century B.C. the arrival of the ancient Greeks in the region brought significant changes. The local area was re-organised around more sophisticated farming models, characterised by the division of land into small parcels, seen particularly on terraced land. The great agricultural expansion led to the beginning of deforestation with the now bare clayey slopes being subject intense erosion, which gave way to the first (calanchi) badland formations. Under Roman rule, large land estates prevailed, huge areas of the site were put to pasture and the systems of mono-cropping impoverished the soil and aggravated problems of erosion. In the 10th-11th century, the Byzantines and the Benedictine monks settled in the area due to its wealth of water sources and woodlands but carried out extensive deforestation in order to provide themselves with sufficient land for cereals crops, olive groves and grapevines. The Napoleonic reign (1805-1814) saw a more intense landuse with increased deforestation and a further expansion in agricultural land which caused a severe aggravation of hydro-geological instabilities and the loss of fertility of soil on the slopes with serious negative impacts on sheep-farming which had been the most important activity in the region. The deforestation in highland areas also affected the water courses thus resulting in extensive areas of swampy marshland at the river’s mouth. Nevertheless, the extension of arable crop land co-existed with the conservation of livestock farming and sheep farming. Aristocratic land owners did, in fact, intensify the breeding of wild animals and resident species, set aside land for grazing and built permanent structures to house animals, while still extending arable farming practices. Even after the abolition of feudalism the large livestock famers continued to use state woods and pastures and integrated the use of arable land with trees in order to make a double income from the fruit of the crops and the trees, used as feed in pig farming. Subsequent legislation impeded deforestation by uprooting legalised the cutting of trees.

Land management: The agricultural census for 2010 shows Castelsaraceno to have a total area of 7,400 ha. The total number of 111 farms is a reduction of around 71% compared to 2000 (386 farms). Castelsaraceno is following the same trend in reducing farm numbers that is seen in the primary sector all over Italy. The most prevalent land use in the study site is currently meadows and permanent pastures, which make up around 70% of the Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA), whilst only 6% of land is used for arable crops. Around 80% of land in the local territory is common land owned by public bodies. These areas are generally public forests, pasture land, wooded areas, abandoned agriculture land, etc. An analysis of current legislation shows that town councils often fail to sustainably manage these land assets, with large areas in a state of abandonment or under an administrative role which leans towards a patrimonial management of lands. The first law regulating the division of state lands dates back to 1807. The law gave municipalities the control of the land and inhabitants lost their rights. In the mountainous parts of the study area shepherds left their sheep to graze on unkept land, whereas in woodlands a sort of levy was imposed for the right to use the common land.

With regional law no. 322/1928, collectively owned lands were again re-structured and plans for re-forestation and better land management on the part of local administrations were introduced. However, the lengthy administrative process surrounding checks, favoured the unlawful occupation of lands by private individuals and led to the destruction of more forested areas and pastures. The poor management of collective lands led to the gradual reduction in utilisable surface area. In the 1960s and 1970s intervention began to restore collective pasturage in the south of Italy. To this end, rural houses, shelters and fencing were constructed, nevertheless with disappointing results that left new infrastructures abandoned.

Common lands only re-entered a framework of environmental safeguards and valorisation of agro-silvo-pastoral activities and local natural and human resources with Mountain Law no 97/1993 which authorised the regions to legislate in land management issues in the wider context of rural development. The Basilicata region regulated collective land management with law no. 42/1998 which entrusted third parties (farming and forestry cooperatives, individual farmers and farming associations, public and private consortiums) with the management of goods and/or services including the use of pasture on public owned land with wooded/grass cover. The law set out that the state body in ownership of grazing land would issue a card granting permission to farmers wishing to graze their animals on common lands, taking into careful consideration the maximum number of animals grazing that the specific land area could sustainably support. The applications for pasturage are annually forwarded to the state body in ownership of the land stating the precise area under application, the number of animals to be grazing per species and also general details of the applicant farmer’s activities. The responsible body then evaluates the maximum capacity for grazing of the site and denies or issues permission for grazing. The capacity of grazing livestock, expressed in Livestock Units (LU), for each area must take into account the current state of the grass cover. Pasturage of goats is permitted only on bare pasture land or on shrub land and in high-stand woodlands. Pasturage is forbidden on newly planted woodlands, woodlands under renovation or affected by fire. In the latter case pasturage is forbidden for at least one year after the fire. It is the responsibility of the farmer to supervise his livestock during grazing and un-supervised grazing is only permitted in fenced areas. Fires are not allowed in woods, and farmers must be vigilant to any fire risks and report any incidents immediately. Grazing land cannot be crossed by roads or lanes.

Grazing management: The Town Council of Castelsaraceno also set out regulations for grazing on common land in 1949 which changed the previous 6 to 12 months period of concession to a three month period. In reality the regulation was scarcely applied and from 1970 to 1991 as successive local administrations in Castelsaraceno failed to apply any regulations at all. Since 1991 pasturage regulations were re-introduced. Nevertheless, evidence shows that there has not been any type of checks or controls in place in this period on the number of livestock allowed to graze on the entire surface area of all municipal pasture land. Consequently, these lands were used un-evenly with areas characterised by reduced grazing pressure, where real grazing is lower than the potential estimated capacity through grazing methodologies.
In 1999 Castelsaraceno Town Council passed deliberation no. 40 of 10/12/1999, in consideration of EC Reg. 207/92 (relating to methods of agricultural production compatible with environmental conservation and preservation of natural areas), which set out new regulations for pasturage on common lands. The regulation introduced several new elements: early pasturage applications to the Municipality should specify the locality under application, the period of grazing, number of animals per species and general details of applicant farmers. These factors along with maximum grazing capacity of each site are carefully considered before authorizing exploitation. Evidence shows that after this deliberation, Municipal management of pasture land allowed only part of municipal pastures to be used by private individuals. In reality this did not help improve the situation of pasture lands in the study area, which had been in a state of gradual degradation since previous decades because of the absence of an effective system of regulation for use of common pastures and grazing capacities. Today there are still cases of areas with overgrazing and lower grazing.

Natural Drivers

According to the data collected it seems that natural factors had little or no influence on pastures degradation in Castelsaraceno area. Nevertheless, the long term SPI index reveals that a drought spell in the 1990s could have increased pressure on the ecosystem. Regarding the Αridity Ιndex, the area displays little signs of weather related aridity or humidity deficiency. Nevertheless, a spell of decreased precipitation seems to briefly change this regime between 1990 and 2000, later to be corrected by wetter years after 2007.

Indirect causes

One of the greatest threats to the Castelsaraceno Study Site is depopulation. Negative demographic trends can play a key role in accelerating processes of degradation, causing reduced guardianship and increased abandonment of land which have serious environmental and cultural knock-on effects. Castelsaraceno, a township with a total surface area of 74.3 km2 had a population of 1,480 in 2010, that is 250 less that in the year 2000, 540 less than 1990 and a staggering 961 less than in 1980. The low population density which characterises the local area, around 20 inhabitants per km2 together with the depopulation trend, can be attributed to the area’s geographic position and difficult morphology as well as its severe lack of infrastructure. The township’s geographical isolation has inevitably affected the mind-set of the local people, who, while showing a strong sense of belonging to their town, struggle to form a collective identity which hinders the process of territorial cohesion that is essential for the implementation of any processes of development. The depopulation of the area is mainly caused by the out-migration of young people, often the most educated, who look for a way out from the difficult conditions in which the community lives. More specifically, the closure or reduction of schools, health centres, post offices, shops and the generally poor economy, are the factors that mostly affect migration towards larger, more economically active urban centers.

European agricultural policy is another factor that has impacted farms and conditioned the dynamic of livestock numbers and, consequently, the management of grazing. The first signs have been the application of the EEC Reg. 2078/92 and 2079/92 (confirmed also in the programming periods 2000-2006 and 2007-2013, together with measure 3.1 on organic farming). The entry into force on 1 January 2006 of the "Hygiene Package" (application of the EC Regulations n. 852/2004, 853/2004, 2073/2005, 2074/2005, 2075/2005 and 2076/2005) has permanently changed the EC rules on hygiene and official controls of foodstuffs. In this way, all Member States have the same criteria on the hygiene of food production and therefore hygiene checks are carried out according to the same standards throughout the European Community. Standardizing health standards has made the free movement of food products that are guaranteed as safe possible, which is a great benefit to consumers. However, the legislation has also introduced a series of stringent requirements for the livestock sector in rural areas which has resulted in a considerable number of producers leaving the sector, thus leading to huge reduction of farm units both at Castelsaraceno and Basilicata in the last decades. Furthermore, considering the fact that the farms present are generally small, family-run farms based on traditional farming models which are not capable of supporting the rising costs of production and administrative and bureaucratic costs to comply with the new rules. The most common complaint among problems highlighted by local stakeholders is the cost of meeting hygiene standards (which amount to between 1,000 and 6,000 euro per year) that leads to the ceasing of many crop and livestock farmers.

In Castelsaraceno, the stable characteristics of the deseasonalised component on the NDVI show little relevance with the steep trend of the SPI48 until 2003 , implying that the climate of the region can sustain healthy vegetation. Nevertheless, a shorter greenness season during the period 1997-2003 versus 1985-1990 may be the result of dryer summers, causing an earlier recede of herbaceous vegetation. Climate change is bound to aggravate these conditions, with higher temperatures and increased aridity stressing vegetation intended for grazing.

Note: For an overview of the historical drivers of change and their analysis in all study sites see »Drivers of change in the study sites.

An area under pressure from grazing

Plant cover was very high in all three different ecosystem states in Castelsaraceno field sites. Both the Reference and the Undergrazed communities showed total plant cover percentages above 90%, while the average of this value was 86.1 % in the overgrazed plots. The most characteristic species in the Reference were Scorzonera villosa, Botrhiocloa ischamum and Brachypodium rupestre (12.8, 11.9 and 10.5%, respectively). The Overgrazed areas also showed high cover of S. villosa and Stipa austroitalica (12.1 and 10.8%, respectively), while the Undergrazed sites showed the most different species abundance. Spartium junceum, a legume shrub, and B. rupestre were the most abundant species in these areas, with 41.3 and 38.2% total cover, respectively. This is the only situation in which a shrub became the most represented species in the whole Castelsaraceno field site. Poaceae is the family that presented higher number of different species and cumulative cover in the Reference (15 species, 66.0%), Overgrazed (13 sp, 60.2%) and Undergrazed states (13 sp, 73.3%). Species of Fabaceae contributed with 46.3% to total plant cover in the Undergrazed, mostly due to S. junceum, 16.9% in the Reference and 14.8% in the Overgrazed.

In Castelsaraceno we found a marked effect of the three spatially replicated sites on plant cover and community composition. In Piano del Campi, plots showed positive values of PCA first axis and negative ones of the second axis, in Monte Alpi values of PC1 were close to 0 and positive in PC2, and in Favino both axis showed negative values except for the three undergrazed replicates. Species with higher eigenvalues on axis 1 are Micromeria graeca, Stipa austroitalica, Linum tryginum, Triticum ovatum and Sanguisorba minor (values 0.595, 0.573, 0.541, 0.524 and 0.508, respectively). Medicago minima, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Agropyron repens, Trifolium repens, Hordeum murinum and Holcus lanatus are negatively extracted on the first axis (-0.814, -0.714, -0.705, -0.655, -0.624 and -0.618, respectively). On the second axis, Triticum ovatum, Scorzonera villosa, and Botrhiochloa ischamum were associated to negative values (-0.733, -0.719 and -0.655, respectively, while Brachypodium rupestre showed the highest positive weight (0.784). According to the main effects of pressure, no major distinctions between the three levels were observed.

However, plots showed differences due to degradation within each spatial replicate. In general, the Overgrazed plots were more similar to the References in composition and cover than the Undergrazed plots. Both in Favino and Piano del Campi, the Undergrazed plots had higher values of axis 1 than the Reference and Overgrazed ones. Lower differences between those two were observed in the second axis values. All nine plots in Monte Alpi were very close but grouped by degradation pressure. The first two axis of the PCA analysis on specific plant cover explained only 20% of the total variance but it is noteworthy that it included all species present in any of the 27 evaluation plots (126 species).

Overgrazing resulted in a not significant decrease of total aboveground biomass, from 7.78 Mg ha-¹ in the Reference to 5.50 Mg ha-¹. Overgrazed areas showed a reduction of 23% in biomass of grasses but also a 54% reduction in shrub biomass. Removing grazing implied a significant recovery of the biomass of the plant community (F=8.522, p=0.002) mostly due to shrub biomass build up. Shrub biomass in the Reference systems averaged 1.6 Mg ha-¹ while in the Undergrazed lands it was above 12 Mg ha-¹ (F=8.932, p=0.001). Changes in grass biomass were not so pronounced, from 6.2 Mg ha-¹ in the Reference to 7.3 Mg ha-¹ in the Undergrazed (F=1.595, p=0.224).

Litter accumulation on the Reference and Overgrazed areas was very similar (around 6.5 Mg ha-¹) while in the Undergrazed sites this amount significantly increased to twice those values (F=4.003, p=0.032). But belowground biomass in the uppermost 15 cm showed a trend to decrease from the Reference to both types of pressure in a similar way.

The three diversity indexes we evaluated (species richness, diversity, evenness) did not show significant changes in relation to the degradation state in Castelsaraceno. Number of plant species was highest in the Undergrazed plots and lowest in the Overgrazed ones (36 and 29, respectively). Reference areas showed intermediate number of species richness. Something similar was observed both in Shannon’s diversity index and Evenness with all three communities showing very close figures. It does not seem that either over- or undergrazing had important impacts on plant diversity.

Interpatches in the Castelsaraceno field site are not bare soil areas but pieces of land covered mostly by small isolated annuals, with perennials or not, but without forming clumps. Patches included compact vegetated spots with shrubs, perennials and/or annuals.

Regarding the spatial distribution of vegetation, over- and undergrazed areas showed the opposite arrangement of interpatches. IP in the Overgrazed state were shorter than in the Undergrazed (35 vs 72 cm, respectively) but a higher proportion of the landscape was due to IP (58.4 and 39.2% in Over- and Undergrazed, respectively). Average size of vegetated patches was also higher both in length and width in the Undergrazed than in the Overgrazed sites, suggesting a higher concentration of vegetation when grazing reduced.

From the point of view of ecosystem functioning, the three states of pressure showed very similar results in the three indexes derived from the LFA assessment. The biggest change was observed in the Stability index that reduced from 54.9% in the Reference to 50.1% in the Undergrazed. However, none of the changes on those indexes were statistically significant.

Soil and water conservation and nutrient cycling are the three services that showed a trend to decrease as affected by over- and undergrazing. However, variability was very high and prevented significant differences. On the other hand, C sequestration was significantly improved in the Undergrazed sites, especially when compared with Overgrazed areas. In general, environmental ecosystem services were reduced in the Overgrazed plots in relation to the Reference while the Undergrazed showed intermediate overall loss of services.

The two degraded states of the ecosystem in Castelsaraceno field site showed the opposite changes in the ecological variables assessed. All variables showed losses in the Overgrazed in relation to the References, especially the width of vegetated patches and total aboveground biomass. Reductions in the length of interpatches can be seen as a positive change. On the other hand, Undergrazed sites showed gains in all properties, especially in total aboveground biomass, litter accumulation and the size of vegetated patches.

Note: For an overview of the structural and functional changes and their analysis in all study sites see »Structural and functional changes.

Stakeholders in Italy perceived changes in the weather, wildfires, loss of vegetation and soil erosion. In Castelsaraceno, 18 drivers of change were identified by stakeholders. The changes perceived were largely water-related and driven by climatic events such as reduction in rainfall and surface water changes. Changes in vegetation, pests and in traditional grazing and agriculture were also noted. Changes at higher altitudes were particularly worrying for stakeholders. As a local naturalist expressed: “there is a progressive deterioration of grass cover on pasture land at higher altitudes and evident processes of erosion are manifesting increasingly year by year. I have even found numerous prehistoric artefacts in areas of heavy erosion”.

It is interesting to note that land users (farmers and shepherds) did not mention climatic events as drivers of change. Instead, they tended to focus on human drivers, such as changes in agricultural and farming practices, water consumption and other environmental management practices.

Stakeholders in Italy proposed a total of 26 adaptation measures, of which almost half were measures towards environmental management and innovation/ alternative practices, and a third were cultural, as they aimed to train the next generation in areas such as farming and tourism, and generally to promote culture.

Table: Changes identified by stakeholders in Castelsaraceno, Italy.

During the focus group, perceptions of future changes highlighted incremental variations in climatic changes, a decrease of water flow and increase in flooding, an increase in changes to vegetation such as “the death of some traditional tree species at higher altitudes”, and subsequent changes to wildlife. However there was a divide in the expected changes for land management. Some stakeholders were concerned that “The total deactivation of agriculture and livestock farming with the eventual abandonment of the territory (depopulation) as there will not be a younger generation left to take over” would unfold, while another vision was that there will be a “return to agriculture and livestock farming with new innovations and access to new markets”. The latter view is based on systemic changes and innovations, such as the mechanisation of farms, training of younger generations, promotion and export of local produce, creation of infrastructure and improvements in policy and administration, such as the reduction of bureaucracy and improvements in incentives to farmers. In the Table below, the views of different stakeholders groups about the future changes and management/policies needed can be contrasted.

Table: Summary of future expectations, alternative land management options and policy/economic support required by stakeholder groups in
Castelsaraceno, Italy.

The expectations for the region are also conditioned to different scenarios in agricultural abandonment. As a local expert stated, “there will be a growth in natural tourism in the areas still inhabited and where agricultural activities have not been abandoned, but [this potential] will decrease in abandoned areas where the landscape is more homogenous and less interesting”.

Note: For an overview results of the workshops on identifying adaptation strategies in all study sites and the concluding recommendations see »Adaptation strategies.

Overgrazed and Fenced systems

Plant cover in all three situations in Castelsaraceno was above 85 % but significant differences were observed between the Overgrazed and the Fenced areas (Figure 1 left; 98.9 and 86.1%, respectively). Plant cover in the Overgrazed areas was due to 29 species while in the Fenced sites we found an average of 39.3 species (Figure 1 right).Diversity indexes (and evenness) did not show significant differences between the three states of the ecosystem (Figure 2). However, we observed a trend to increase diversity in the restored areas in relation to the degraded ones. Shannon-Wiener’s and evenness increased in a 34.0 and 22.0%, respectively, ten years after fencing the overgrazed areas.    

A total of 171 species of vascular plants were recorded in the 45 plots established in Casatelsaraceno. Plant composition was different according to the state of the ecosystem in the three experimental sites. We have analyzed plant composition separately in each of the three experimental for clarity in the changes due to the state of the ecosystem. In Favino, only 12 out of 55 recorded species were found in the three states of the ecosystem. In the Reference plots, the species with higher abundance were Medicago minima (17.9%), Poa pratensis (15.4%), Trifolium repens (13.4%) and Brachypodium rupestre (10.4%). Two species were the most abundant both in the overgrazed and fenced plots: Trifolium incarnatum (22.9 and 12.9%, respectively) and B. rupestre (18.4 and 12.9%, respectively). The graphical representation of the two first axis of the Principal Component Analysis on plant cover data clearly grouped the plots by state (Figure 3). In Favino, with 55 species in the analysis, the first and second components explained 23.8 and 18.9% of the total variance. The Reference plots showed highest values of the first component while the second component separated the Overgrazed plots (higher values in PC2) and the Fenced plots (lower values).

Sixty-two species were present and included in the analysis in Monte Alpi, 12 of them were present in all three ecosystem states. Bromus erecti and Brachypodium rupestre showed the highest cover in the Reference community (20.9% both), followed by Satureja montana and Stipa austroitalica with 14.4 and 10.9%, respectively. Cynosurus cristatus and B. erecti were the most abundant in the overgrazed (13.4% both) while Stipa austroitalica (39.9%), B. erecti (29.4%) and S. minor (19.4%) abounded in the Fenced plots. Species which characterized the References were Lonicera caprifolium, Medicago lupulina and P. hirsutum. The Overgrazed and Fenced communities separated along the second axis with negative values of the Fenced plots and positive values of the Overgrazed ones.

In Piano del Campi, 80 species were found in the 9 plots and only nine species were common to the three states. Scorzonera villosa (38.3%), Bothriochloa ischaemum (35.8%) and, in a lesser extent, Triticum ovatum (17.4%) and Dactylis glomerata (11.9%) were highly represented in the Reference community. The Overgrazed plots also presented high cover of S. villosa and B. ischaemum and T. ovatum (36.3, 25.4 and 17.4%, respectively) but also showed high cover of S. austroitalica (32.3%). Eleven species showed cover values above 10% in the Fenced areas. Xeranthemum cilindraceum, Daucus carota and B. rupestre showed the highest cover percentages in these areas (27.9, 27.4 and 21.9, respectively). The two first axis of the PCA explained 51.8% of the total variance (34.1 and 17.7%, respectively). In this site, Reference and Overgrazed plots were quite similar in composition as observed in Figure 3. Fenced plots were clearly separated from the rest along the first axis but showed high heterogeneity along the second axis.   

We observed some small changes in the different biomass fractions of the community but these changes were not significant (Figure 4). Average aboveground biomass was 36.6% higher in the Fenced than in the Overgrazed areas and similar to the values of the Reference ecosystem. Belowground biomass in the uppermost 15 cm of the soil showed the same trend than aboveground biomass but, surprisingly, litter showed the opposite trend with a reduction of about 50% in the Fenced plots. However, data heterogeneity was large enough to prevent significant differences.   

Fencing significantly increased the length but not the total cover of interpatches in relation to both the Overgrazed and the Reference situations (Figure 5). However, in all the systems of Castelsaraceno interpatches do not represent bare soil areas but a matrix of herbs and grasses. Size of patches, woody plants or a mix of woodies and herbs, tended to increase in the Fenced areas with increases aorund 60% both in length and width in relation to the Overgrazed areas.     

The three indexes derived from LFA were quite similar in the three studied situations (Figure 6). Stability is only slightly reduced from the Reference in the Overgrazed and Fenced areas while the nutrient cycling index is relatively increased in a 19.8% in the Fenced as compared to the Overgrazed plots.

Ecosystem services calculated from these properties are shown in Figure 7. Restoration by fencing implied an increase (not significant) of nutrient cycling, C sequestration and, especially, biodiversity from the Overgrazed state of the ecosystem. This former service was also well above in the Restored than in the Reference sites. Water and soil conservation did not show important changes due to restoration. The combination of all calculated services showed that the Restored system through fencing overgrazed areas resulted in an increase of ecosystem services but still below the services provided by the Reference ecosystem. 

All the ecosystem properties evaluated in this study were higher in the Fenced than in the Overgrazed lands of Castelsaraceno except litter accumulation (Figure 8). However, these improvements are not yet translated to significantly better ecosystem services after the type of restoration assessed.

Undergrazed and Cleared systems

The opposite to the above mentioned situation is represented by areas in which the grazing pressure is very low, with symptoms of shrub encroachment and where the restoration approach consisted in clearing woody vegetation. In comparison to the reference grassland, both the degraded and the restored plots did not show significant changes either in total plant cover or number of vascular plant species (Figure 9). Plant cover in all three situations was very high (above 92%) and the total number of plant species found was 142, slightly higher in the Undergrazed and, in a lesser extent, in the Cleared states than in the Reference. Diversity and evenness indexes showed a trend to increase (26% higher values in relation to the degraded state) in the Cleared plots in relation to the other two situations (Figure 10). 

Twenty-four species were shared by the three states of the ecosystem. Also 24 species were only found in the Reference plots, 20 in the Undergrazed plots, and 29 were exclusive of the Cleared ones. In Favino, the three most abundant species in the Reference plots (Medicago minima, Poa pratensis and Trifolium repens with 17.9, 15.4 and 13.4%, respectively) were not found in the other states. Brachypodium rupestre, one of the species present in all communities, was the most abundant one in the Undergrazed (50.7%), but the second and third species with highest cover (Spartium junceum and Festuca circummediterranea, with 45.3 and 26.4%, respectively) were specific of the Undergrazed plots. Another woody species, such as Crataegus monogyna (15.4%), presented relative high cover in this situation. In the Cleared plots, the species with highest cover was Agrostis stolonifera (24.9%) which was absent in the Reference and Undergrazed plots. These contrasted composition of species resulted in clearly separated groups after PCA analysis in the three spatially replicated sites (Figure 11). The two first components of the analysis in Favino explained 48.9% of the total variance and included 73 species. The three replicates of both the Reference and Undergrazed plots were very close in the graphical representation of these two axes revealing high similarity of plant composition while the Cleared plots showed a wider range of values along these two axes. Something similar was observed in Monte Alpi (90 species in the analysis and 45.1% of explained variance by the two first axes), with plots plotted close for the Undergrazed and Reference states but more separated, especially along the second axis, in the case of Cleared plots. The proximity of the reference and undergrazed groups of plots can be related to the grazing pressure that might not be much contrasted. In Piano del Campi, with 69 species included in the PCA (46.1% of explained variance by the two first axes), the three groups of plots were separated along the first axis and the References also showed lower values of the second axis than the Undergrazed and Cleared groups of plots.   

We observed an opposite effect of clearing in above and belowground accumulation of biomass (Figure 12). Both aerial plant biomass and litter were sharply reduced (but not significantly) to similar values than the reference areas by the restoration treatment implemented in Undergrazed plots. These reductions were around 50%. In contrast, belowground biomass in the uppermost 15 cm of soil was increased in 56.6% in the restored sites in comparison to the Undergrazed. These findings might be related to the relative changes in plant composition and species life traits (life cycle, leaf life span and production, rooting patterns) associated to the clearing treatment.   

The arrangement of vegetation in the space was only slightly changed ten years after restoration. The length and cover of interpatches were very similar in all three situations (Figure 13). The percentage of land associated to interpatches (a matrix of grasses and forbs) increased in ca. 56% in the Cleared sites as compared to the Undergrazed ones. Conversely, the size of patches (mainly due to woody plants) was sharply reduced in 24 and 29% (length and width, respectively). The Cleared areas were much more similar to the Reference than the degraded Undergrazed ones. 

The stability, infiltration and nutrient cycling indexes derived from the LFA assessment did not show important differences between the three states of the ecosystem (Figure 14). However, the Cleared plots showed a slight improvement of these indexes (lower than a relative 10% in all cases) in relation to the Undergrazed plots.

All ecosystem services except C sequestration were improved in the Cleared plots in relation to the Undergrazed ones (Figure 15). The latter showed a clear reduction in soil and water conservation and nutrient cycling as compared both to the Reference and the Cleared sites. On the contrary, the reduction of the grazing pressure increased C sequestration notably in respect to the two alternative situations. The highest value of the combination of all the services considered in this study was observed in the restoration areas. However, there are other provisioning services associated to grazing that might reverse the final balance. 

In this case, aproximately half of the ecosystem properties we have evaluated showed improvements and the other half were reducedafter restoration while other such as total plant cover (close to 100% in both cases) and species richness showed very little changes (Figure 16). Only the size of the patches and litter accumulation were significantly reduced in the Cleared areas in relation to the Undergrazed.

Note: For full references to papers quoted in this article see

» References

Eleven stakeholders attended this workshop (Figure 1), including representatives from the farmers’/shepherds’ union, local land users and producers, and land managers (i.e. forest managers and agronomists).

Available policies regarding agro-environmental incentives in the Castelsaraceno territory were presented by one of the stakeholders. This was followed by presentation of CASCADE’s relevant principles by the research team.

In Castelsaraceno, land abandonment was the main SLM issue, as the risk of forest fire was very marginal. Unlike other areas in the Mediterranean, it is under-grazing that has had negative impacts as a consequence of land abandonment as it can increase fire risk. The principles presented to the stakeholders as a basis for discussions therefore covered land abandonment (principles 1 to 4), forest fire (3), and grazing (4, 5).

For descriptions of the principles discussed here, see »Guidelines for land managers: the land abandonment context_EN, »Guidelines for land managers: the overgrazing context_EN and »Guidelines for land managers: the forest fire context.

Land abandonment

Stakeholders in Italy discussed in detail the challenges and opportunities in stopping land abandonment. They saw it very much as a holistic issue, and discussed the challenges and opportunities for addressing rural out-migration and low productivity.

In Italy, the farmers’/shepherds’ union representative agreed with the principles proposed, as he had witnessed the environmental pressure that the land has been facing in the last few decades, and thus the need to prevent future deterioration and safeguard local resources. However, stakeholders had diverse views about the biggest challenges in the region: while the local veterinary officer signalled the lack of, or poor infrastructure, the environmental association representative and the local public administrator recognised depopulation as an important social trend due to the perceived benefits and status of living in urban areas as the biggest challenge. The absence of collective action was also seen as a key theme in the use of SLM and in implementing the principles (see Table 1). Within the discussion the stakeholders differentiated very little and tended to treat the principles as a set without specifying which they were referring to.

Indeed, the representative from the environmental association identified the region of Basilicata’s biggest problem as the progressive depopulation of the territory and the absence of collective action. As there are relatively few people spread out across large areas, they considered that the prevailing individualist mind-set needs to be replaced by a greater confidence in the power of building networks, not just agricultural networks but also social networks. He concluded his intervention by describing a very positive model of community collective action he recently saw in Japan in the hope it could be adopted in the region.

Table 1. Main comments and proposals regarding land abandonment principles (treated as a set).

The local government representative agreed with the general discussion and all the principles, and considered that even small infrastructure investments could reboot rural economies and help incentivise people to return to the community.

Grazing

During the discussions, the stakeholders remembered past measures in Castelsaraceno and agreed with the land management principles identified for pastures. However, only principles 4 and 5 of the overgrazing context were considered applicable to Castelsaraceno’s current conditions. Principle 4 “Animal types and herd composition influence plant diversity and health. Overgrazing by uniform livestock species can lead to the spread of invasive/unpalatable species” encourages land users to plan resting periods for pastures, selectively remove unwanted species and to diversify animal types and Increase health and productivity.

The agronomist stakeholder also mentioned measures to be added: that rotation timetables and grazing loads should be adapted to specific land characteristics; that pasture biomass ought to be considered when calculating grazing loads; and that introducing local indigenous breeds alongside the good practices in place was needed. Equally it was mentioned that to limit grazing during the dry season, careful planning of grazing schedules needed to be in place in order to allow pastures to rest. This is a past practice and was also compatible with principle 5 “Remove particularly invasive shrub either mechanically or with controlled fires to stop the spread of pastures towards woodland”. These practices were considered successful at preventing invasive flora when there were a significant number of livestock grazing. It was also mentioned that management plans can be created (at a local town council or regional level) to organise the removal of undesirable flora species.

Regarding mixed grazing, the local veterinarian mentioned that crop rotation, crop selection and the removal of invasive plants should be better incentivised in order to be applied. He mentioned a case in which it was detrimental not to use principle 4 (- in the Park of Pollino in 2004 there was an outbreak of anthrax in cattle spread by insect bites and contact between the cattle when all herding around drinking troughs), for which he proposed more drinking troughs in order to avoid the spread of the problem.

Note: For full references to papers quoted in this article see

» References