Albatera, ES

Albatera, Spain: Description of site and main causes of degradation

2014-11-06T09:43:28+00:00

Authors:	Bautista, S. and Guixot, L.
Coordinating authors:	Tsanis, I. K. and Daliakopoulos, I. N.
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Daliakopoulos, I. and Tsanis, I. (eds) 2014. Historical evolution of dryland ecosystems. CASCADE Project Deliverable 2.1. CASCADE Report 04. 126 pp.

Description of the study site

Location

The Albatera Study Site is located on the Albatera-Crevillente range, within Albatera municipality, in Alicante province, Southeast Spain. An agricultural plain, part of the Segura river valley, lies south of the range and includes the town of Albatera, with a population of almost 12,000 inhabitants. Albatera municipality has mostly remained rural, although a variety of industries (such as textile, construction and mining) are also important in the area. The CASCADE Albatera experimental plots comprise a set of areas with natural vegetation (i.e. no croplands) on the southern area of the range.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Albatera Study Site location" title="">

Topography

The Albatera-Crevillente range is located within the easternmost extreme of the Subbetic zone of the Betic Cordilleras, which crosses the south of the Iberian Peninsula in a WSW-ENE direction. San Cayetano (816 m) is the highest peak in the range and Monte Alto (682 m) is the highest in the study site. Slopes are moderate, for 25% of the area slope angle is under 25%. Mountainous areas are fragmented by ravines (ramblas), formed perpendicular to the range, frequently along tectonic faults. The range is connected to the alluvial plain by a relatively narrow strip of an intermediate hilly area, where both hillslopes and ravines are deeply altered by crop terraces.

{tip
General view of the western area of Albatera Study Site (photo: S. Bautista)}{/tip}

Geology and soils

The range is formed by an anticline of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous materials (gypsiferous loams of Keuper facies, limestones, dolomites, and dolomite limestones), whose WSW-ENE axis dips toward the east below a Miocene series. The Tertiary series begins, discordant, with levels of conglomerate and sandstones (molasses) and continues with loams, clays, marls, poorly-cemented sandstone, and ending with layers of conglomerate, sandstones and loams from the Pliocene. The compact calcareous nature of the core of Jurassic materials contrasts with the Tertiary materials, resulting in marked differential erosion that creates high mountain peaks bordered by deep ravines with vertical walls. According to the JRC WRB Soil Geographical Database, dominant soils in the mountain range area are Calcisols, while dominant soils in the alluvial plain south of the range are Cambisols and Fluvisols. According to the same source, aridic soils are dominant in the mountain range, while calcaric soils are dominant across the alluvial plain.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Soil groups according to the FAO classification in the study site (source: JRC)" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Categories of soil materials (WRB) in the study site (source: JRC)" title="">

Land use

Albatera municipality has a surface area of 6,639 ha. The main land use is agriculture (52% of the land) with scrublands and woodlands covering 24% of the area. The rest of the land (21%) is distributed among a variety of land uses, including urbanisation and industries. Crops are one third lemon and orange trees, one third fruit-trees (such as pomegranates and figs) and one third a variety including olives, date palms and and vineyards. The study site, which is located on the mountain range area, is mostly covered by a mosaic of shrubland and degraded scrubland, with some patches of pine forests originating from various reforestation/afforestation activities implemented in the 1970s-80s. CORINE Land Cover data show no change in the between 1990 and 2006, indicating rather stable woodland-scrubland zones (despite the various reforestation activities in the area). The only significant change was the transformation of several patches of arable land into permanent crops after 1990.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Land use in the Albatera Study Site (source: CORINE, JRC)" title="">

Climate

The climate is classified as (steppe) semiarid according to the Köppen climate classification, and as arid according to the UNEP Aridity Index (AI) adopted by the UNCCD. About 35% of the annual precipitation occurs in autumn, 30% in spring, 20% in winter and only around 15% during summer. The highest values of monthly precipitation are commonly recorded in October. According to the available record, annual precipitation shows no significant trend and remains stable at 267 mm.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Monthly (blue) and annual (green) precipitation from the E-OBS dataset" title=""> {tip
Mean monthly (red) and annual (blue) temperature at Albatera, derived from the E-OBS dataset and corrected for bias}{/tip}

Again, according to the available record, temperature shows a slight upward trend with an annual mean of 18 oC. Potential evaporation is estimated at 1,633 mm.

Hydrogeology

There is no permanent-flow channel in the Albatera area. However, the overland flow produced on the mountain range slopes concentrates along a number of intermittent-flow channels (ramblas) that only carry water after major rainfall events. Close to their sources, the ramblas have a great erosive potential, creating a system of deep channels that connect the mountain range and the lowland. In the lowland, the ramblas become wider and shallower, and the channels are often altered by human activities. Finally, the channels disappear into the alluvial plain, where runoff becomes diffuse.

The Albatera area hosts parts of two aquifer systems: the Vega Baja and the Crevillente aquifers. Both aquifers provide water of relatively poor quality that is mostly used for irrigation. The Vega Baja is a large (750 km2) alluvial aquifer that lies on the south of the area (alluvial plain) and comprises the Quaternary sediments of the lower Segura river valley. The Crevillente aquifer (140 km2), is partly located within the Albatera Study Site. It is a karstic aquifer that comprises a series of Jurassic limestones and dolomites, more than 500 m thick, which forms the core and uppermost part of the Albatera-Crevillente range. The system lacks permanently flowing streams or springs. Aquifer recharge is from precipitation over outcrops of permeable rocks, and it has been estimated to range between 6 and 10 hm3 per year, with peaks up to 16 hm3 in very wet years.

The southwestern area of Crevillente aquifer (located within the study area) is exploited through the water-mining system of Los Suizos Gallery. Inside the gallery, there are wells that pour the extracted water on the gallery floor. Water is driven over 2 km to the gallery mouth and distributed for irrigation from this point. Intense exploitation of the aquifer started in the early 1960s, with the construction of the gallery, and continued for several decades, resulting in an overall decrease in piezometric level of around 200 m, abandonment of boreholes, and severe deterioration of water quality. In 1987, the governmental water authority designated the aquifer as overexploited. Although water extraction has been reduced in recent years, it is still highly mineralized, of very poor quality, and several overexploited pockets can still be identified in the area. Today, of the original 12 extraction points drilled inside the gallery, only four pumps remain in use, the others having been abandoned. The current pumping capacity is 350 l/s and the water is mainly used to irrigate various areas within the boundaries of Albatera and neighbouring municipalities.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Location of the Los Suizos Gallery in the Crevillente aquifer (adapted from Andreu et al., 2002 and Bru and Andreu, 2006)" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Photo taken inside the Los Suizos Gallery in the Crevillente aquifer (adapted from Andreu et al., 2002 and Bru and Andreu, 2006)" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Piezometric dynamics in the western area of the Crevillente aquifer (adapted from Andreu et al., 2002)" title="">

There are many artificial channels in the area for both inter-basin transfers and water redistribution. The Tajo-Segura inter-basin transfer is of particular interest, as it is an important source of water for both irrigation and domestic supply in the area. It crosses Albatera municipality from West to East, around 2 km south of the Albatera-Crevillente range.

Main ecosystems

Thermo-Mediterranean shrublands. The natural climate-driven vegetation communities in Albatera are thermo-Mediterranean shrublands, dominated by deep-rooting tall shrub species that are particularly adapted to water scarcity and extreme summer drought conditions. In healthy shrublands, total plant cover is relatively high (> 60%), and consists of big patches of tall shrubs within a matrix of grasses, subshrubs, chamaephytes and bare soil. The most common tall-srub species in this type of communities are: Rhamnus lycioides, Quercus coccifera, Pistacia lentiscus, Olea europaea ssp sylvestris, Juniperus oxycedrus, Osyris quadripartita, Ephedra fragilis, Chamaerops humilis and Witania frutescens. Most of these are resprouting species that can regenerate from the root collar if burned or cut. Few patches of well-preserved tall-shrubland can be found in the area, mainly on high-altitude rocky areas, where rock outcrops and difficult access have prevented or decreased the (marginal) agricultural use of the land, and on relatively humid swales, where higher water availability has allowed a good development the plant communities.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" General view of a well-preserved shrubland area in Albatera Study Site (photo: S. Bautista)" title=""> {tip
General view of degraded scrublands and steppes in the Albatera Study Site (photo: S. Bautista)}{/tip}

Degraded and reforested/afforested ecosystems. Intense land exploitation, which often included uprooting resprouting species, has led to changes in vegetation towards ecosystems dominated by subshrubs and tussock grasses, with very low plant cover (around 30%) on a matrix of degraded bare soil. Dominant species in these communities are subshrubs such as Globularia alypum, Rosmarinus offcinalis, Cistus clussi and Anthyllis citisoides; chamaephyte species such as Thymus vulgaris, Fumana ericoides and Helianthemum apenninun; perennial grasses such as Stipa tenacissima, Lygeum spartum and Brachypodium retusum. The area also includes a number of scattered Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) forest patches, which have resulted from past reforestation programs implemented in the area, mostly through terracing.

General recent dynamic of vegetation health. A synoptic view of vegetation health and the associated function of ecosystems can be derived from analysis of archival and on-going sequences of NDVI which shows a slightly decreasing trend since the 1980s and a reduction of the osculation width. Taking into account the relative stability of precipitation, this change could be interpreted as a sign of reduced vegetation productivity, possibly due to land degradation.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Historical evolution of NDVI through time (green) corrected for bias using value from LandSat imagery (black points)" title=""> {tip
View of Albatera Study Site showing natural shrublands (background) and reforestation terraces (foreground) (photo
S. Bautista)}{/tip}

Selected ecosystems for CASCADE assessment. Four types of ecosystems or landscape units, representing different levels of degradation, have been selected for the assessment of degradation and restoration impacts on ecosystem services provision in the Albatera Study Site: (a) Healthy (remnant) Mediterranean shrublands; (b) Degraded dwarf shrublands; (c) Old pine reforestation on terraces implemented on 1970s-80s; and (d) Restored shrublands (multispecies plantation; 2004-06).

Socioeconomic status

Before the 1950s, the economy of Albatera municipality fully relied on agriculture, originally based on both irrigated farming, in the low lands of the Segura river basin, and rainfed crops, mainly on terraces of the lowest parts of the mountain range and on the transition areas between the range and the low lands. During this period, the mountain range also supported some marginal activities such as alpha-grass harvesting (for fibre production) and firewood gathering. Grazing was moderately important before the 1950s; for example, in 1910, the livestock census for Albatera was around 1,000 animals (evenly distributed among sheep, goats, pigs, mules, horses and donkeys) a number which is considered to be the total livestock capacity for the area. At that time, Albatera had a population of 4,050 inhabitants.

The trade of pigs was important in the 19th and first half of 20th century, but there was no other important commercial or industrial activity. Average family farm income was low, a fact that led to several migration pulses, mostly during 1900-1925 and in the 1950s.
During the second half of the 20th century, major socio-economic changes resulting from the widespread use of fossil-fuel derived products, industrial development and intensification of tourism, led to general rural land abandonment in Spain. In Albatera, agriculture abandonment mostly affected rainfed crops and agricultural terraces located on (or near to) the mountain range. Grazing, wood gathering, alpha-grass harvesting and other marginal activities also ceased. Despite this process of land abandonment, the economy of Albatera continues to mainly rely on irrigation farming (mainly lemon and orange trees and other fruit-tree crops such as pomegranates and figs) located on the low lands and transition areas between the low lands and the mountain range. However, the fragmentation of agricultural land, the spread of second-home urbanisations, and the aging of the farmer population (and associated increase in part-time agriculture) are processes that challenge the future of agriculture in Albatera. Textile and building-sector industries, commerce and an incipient tourism industry are recently gaining economic importance and have contributed to a significant population increase in recent years (from 8,811 inhabitants in 2000 to 11,936 inhabitants in 2012).

Since the late 19th century, the mountain range area has been a public domain, belonging to the municipality of Albatera but being jointly managed by the Forest Service of the Valencia Regional Government and the municipality. The Albatera Study Site is located on “forest land”, the main land use in the mountain range. No farming activity is currently allowed in the area. At present, the exploitation of natural resources is limited to small-game hunting (rabbits, partridges) and snail harvesting, although limited grazing can sporadically take place.

In 2002, the association of irrigation-land owners signed a 99 year concession agreement for the exploitation of Los Suizos Gallery, which includes the right for improvement, maintenance and repair work on the gallery and associated distribution channels.

Timeline of events

The most important recent changes and milestones that have occurred since the 1950s in the natural and social environment of Albatera and that are relevant for understanding current land condition are included in the figure below. Prior to those events, two more periods can be considered important:

1900-1920s: several migration pulses, triggered by the low profitability of agricultural land; associated abandonment of marginal agricultural and grazing on the Albatera-Crevillente range slopes.
1920s-30s: sharp increase in irrigation land, with associated decrease in migration rate.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Event timeline for Albatera since the 1950s" title="">

Main causes of land degradation

Human induced drivers

As in most dryland areas of the Mediterranean Basin, the long-term impact of intense land use, including burning, woodland clearing, grazing, terracing and cultivation, has resulted in strongly human-modified landscapes in the Albatera area, and the relative role played by each of those old disturbances is difficult to unravel. In more recent times, two main periods, with contrasting socio-economic conditions, are of major relevance as drivers of the current land condition in the area:

Before the 1950s, the economy of the area completely relied on agriculture. Agricultural activities were originally based on irrigated farming, mainly from the Segura river waters and rainfed crops on the lowest parts of the mountain range. Later, a switch towards fully irrigated farming took place, resulting from access to additional sources of water such as inter-basin transfers and construction of new irrigation systems. During this period, the Albatera mountain range area was exploited through a diffuse set of marginal activities including marginal agriculture, grazing, wood gathering and alpha-grass (Stipa tenacissima) exploitation for fibre production. The accumulated impact of these activities heavily altered the natural shrublands (though still some remnant patches can be found) and promoted land degradation. The main consequences of this degradation include: loss of ecosystem functions (water infiltration and nutrient cycling), reduced productivity; very low plant cover; and net loss of resources (water, soil) from the system. In addition, off-site damage due to flooding is also important. According to the Land Action Plan to Prevent Flooding in the Valencia Region (PATRICOVA, Regional Government), the Albatera-Crevillente range is one of the hot spots of flooding risk in the province of Alicante.
During the second half of the 20th century, major socio-economic changes occurred in Spain that led to a generalized trend of rural land abandonment. Most of the agricultural land in Albatera is family-owned, with an average property size of 1.8 ha and relatively low productivity value. This has fostered rural land abandonment and the development of commercial and industrial activities. Nowadays, further fragmentation of agricultural land is taking place in response of demands for other land uses (e.g. second-home urbanisations and part-time agriculture). Resource exploitation in the mountain range area has mostly ceased, with the exception of some terraced crop enclaves in the lowest parts of the range and the water-mining system of Los Suizos gallery. Grazing is almost absent.
Several afforestation/reforestation programmes have taken place in this period. These actions, mainly aimed at controlling erosion and floods, have yielded poor results. Unsuccessful reforestation through terracing and maintenance works on the pipe system for water distribution from the Los Suizos Gallery have further altered and degraded the landscape. In recent years, a new set of restoration actions have been implemented in the site by the Valencia Region Forest Service and the Spanish Ministry of Environment. These actions mainly consist of multi-species and spatially heterogeneous plantations designed to combat the multifaceted land degradation of the area. The selection of plant species focused on matching the diversity of habitats, landscape functional units, and natural patterns in the target area.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Degraded reforestation terraces in Albatera Study Site (photo: S. Bautista)" title="">

Natural drivers

Both prolonged droughts and wet periods are common in the area, reflecting the well-known inter-annual heterogeneity in precipitation of arid and semiarid lands. However, dry periods were more frequent than wet periods. Severe long droughts took place during 1963-65, 1983-85, and 1994-96. Mild drought conditions were also observed during 2000-02. It should not go unnoticed that the severe droughts of 1983-85 and 1994-96 coincide well with two instances of extreme NDVI decline. Given the low resolution of the NDVI analysis at this point, the spatial extent and gravity of the effect of those droughts appears substantial.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" SPI 48 estimated for the period 1963-2011 for the area of Albatera" title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Aridity estimated for the Albatera area" title="">

Regarding the aridity index, the area displays stability within the arid bracket with few years that crossed over to a semi-arid character, and two years (1962 and 1995) that approached hyper-arid conditions. Although less evident, 1983-85 and 1994-96 also appear to be important milestones for the fate of the local climate and ecosystem.

Albatera, Spain: Drivers of change

2016-01-25T10:56:40+00:00

Authors:	Tsanis, I. K. and Daliakopoulos, I. N.
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Daliakopoulos, I. and Tsanis, I. (eds) 2014. Drivers of change in the study sites. CASCADE Project Deliverable 2.2. CASCADE Report 06. 59 pp.

In Albatera, a break in the otherwise moderate trend is detected between 1995 and 1997. According to »Historical evolution of dryland ecosystems > Albatera, Spain there was no significant disturbances in the timeline during that time. Nevertheless, the period coincides well with the second most prolonged drought in the area after 1982 . Therefore it is possible that the driver of change in the area is connected to climate and predominantly precipitation and water deficit. The data shows that winters and summers have become more pronounced after 1997, following milder transitions before 1994. This change may signify a transition from a system with constant water availability to one that is seasonally stressed.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Bimonthly NDVI, broken down into seasonal and deseasonalised components, against SPI48 for the period 1982 – 2003 for the Albatera Study Site." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" NDVI Seasonal component differences for the periods before and after trend shifts for the Albatera Study Site." title="">

Note: For an overview of the historical drivers of change and their analysis in all study sites see »Drivers of change in the study sites.

Albatera, Spain: Structural and functional changes

2016-01-14T11:28:03+00:00

Authors:	Alejandro Valdecantos and Ramón Vallejo (CEAM) with input from study sites
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Valdecantos & Vallejo. (2015) Report on structural and functional changes associated to regime shifts in Mediterranean dryland ecosystems. CASCADE Project Deliverable 5.1.

An area under multiple, diffuse pressures

Twenty-five species were found in the Degraded and Reference plots in Albatera. The multiple stresses acting resulted in a significant reduction of plant cover that reduced from 55.6% in the Reference to 36.7% in the Degraded site (t=-5.776, p=0.004). The three species that showed the highest cover percentage were Artemisia barrelieri, Fagonia cretica and Ephedra fragilis in the Reference (17.9, 13.1 and 6.7%, respectively), and especially Fumana thymifolia in the Degraded sites (24.3%). Only six species were common to the two pressure levels: Brachypodium retusum, Stipa tenacissima (grasses), F. cretica, Globularia alypum, E. fragilis and Anagallis arvensis. This difference in composition and abundance of plant species resulted in a clear separation between plots of the two pressure levels according, mainly, to the first axis of the PCA. PC1 and PC2 account for 39.2 and 23.0% of the variance after including in the analysis all the 25 species found. Echium creticum, Rhamnus lycioides and Anthyllis cytisoides were positively extracted in the significant first axis (eigenvalues of 0.916, 0.867 and 0.820, respectively) while F. thymifolia was heavily negatively extracted on PC1 (-0.959). As mentioned above, this species presented very high cover percentages in the Degraded sites while it was not present at all in the Reference sites. The distance observed in one of the Reference plots along the second axis was due to the low cover of Artemisia barrelieri (7.5%) in relation to the other two plots (20.1 and 26.2%) as this species was negatively extracted on PC2 (-0.644). On the other hand, the three Degraded plots were very close in the PCA representation suggesting more similar plant species composition and cover than the References.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Total plant cover in the Reference and Degraded states in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Plot distribution in Albatera according to the two first axis of PCA conducted on plant cover. Plots are marked by the level of pressure." title="">

Plant biomass in Albatera was 2.3 times lower in the Degraded than in the Reference plots (t=-14.232, p<0.001) due to the combination of lower total plant cover and the biomass accumulation pattern of the different species occurring in each site.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Plant biomass (Mg ha-¹) in the Reference and Degraded states in Albatera field site. Mean, standard errors and significance are shown" title="">

The three diversity indices assessed were significantly reduced as a consequence of the degradation pressure in Albatera. Total number of plant species was reduced in a 40% in the Degraded plots as compared to the Reference (10.3 and 17.3, respectively; t=-2.806, p=0.049). Shannon’s diversity index and evenness also showed significant reductions in the Degraded plots (t=-5.885, p=0.004 and t=-7.846, p=0.001, respectively).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Number of species (left), Shannon-Wiener Index of diversity (center) and evenness (right) in the Reference and Degraded states in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

Degradation also significantly modified the spatial distribution of the sink and source areas and the morphology of the vegetation patches. The Degraded sites showed a very high proportion of interpatch areas (91.8%) that were significantly higher than those observed in the References (66.9%; t=9.352, p=0.001). In this site interpatches are mainly bare soil areas heavily exposed to heating and erosion. In addition, the average length of interpatches was significantly higher as well in the Degraded plots (1.69 vs 0.82 m; t=4.812, p=0.037). Similarly, the size of vegetation patches (shrubs, grasses, mixed spots and standing dead plants) were higher in the Reference both in length (50 vs 16 cm; t=-5.957, p=0.004) and width (64 vs 19 cm; t=-6.151, p=0.004). These features have profound consequences in the overall functioning of the resulting ecosystems.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Values of Interpatch length (top left), cover (top right), patch length (bottom left) and width (bottom right) in the Reference and Degraded states in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

Both systems showed similar degree of stability (54.5 and 52.2% the Reference and the Degraded, respectively) but differed in both the infiltration and the nutrient cycling indices. The loss was highest in the nutrient cycling index as it dropped almost 44% (relative percentage), from 21.5 to 12.0% (t=-8.265, p=0.001), while the infiltration index relatively reduced by 32% (from 27.3 to 18.5%; t=-8.309, p=0.001).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Values of the Stability, Infiltration and Nutrient Cycling indexes derived from LFA in the Reference and Degraded states in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown." title="">

In this field site, the long term degradation due to the combination of climate and land use and mismanagement has led to a significant loss of all ecosystem services assessed. The highest losses were observed in C sequestration (t=-14.055, p<0.001), water conservation (t=-7.838, p=0.014) and nutrient cycling (t=-6.538, p=0.018). This represents a very severe loss of the environmental services provided by the semiarid shrublands in Eastern Spain.
All the ecosystem properties evaluated in Albatera have been reduced by degradation. Increases in interpatch length and cover indicate lower functioning of the ecosystem in soil and water conservation and nutrient cycling. The size of the patches, both in length and width, is the characteristic that showed the highest loss followed by plant biomass and diversity, all of them with losses above 50%.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Standardized values (mean and standard errors) of the list of ecosystem services in Albatera, as derived from combinations of the different variables acquired. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters show significant differences." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Losses or gains (negative and positive values, respectively) of assessed ecosystem properties in the Degraded areas of the Albatera field site in relation to the References. Asterisks denote significant differences between ecosystem states. " title="">

Note: For an overview of the structural and functional changes and their analysis in all study sites see »Structural and functional changes.

Albatera, Spain: Adaptation strategies for changing conditions

2015-06-08T11:35:31+00:00

Authors:	Cecelia De Ita, Lindsay Stringer, Luuk Fleskens, Andy Dougill, with input from study sites
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	De Ita et al. (2015) Report on stakeholder adaptation strategies in the CASCADE study sites. CASCADE Project Deliverable 8.1.

In Albatera, the changes that were perceived by stakeholders were mostly environmental and due to land use shifts. Land use changes further consisted of abandonment of agricultural areas, agricultural use of forested areas and the consequent loss of forested areas, rangeland abandonment and an increase in croplands. Contrasting views were found in the individual responses. While a local government representative only mentioned a positive change because of reforestation efforts (carried out at the end of 1960 and throughout the 1970s, due to policy and economic drivers), an environmental researcher only mentioned “landscape degradation” during the last 20 years (due to causes such as “poor recovery of previously degraded land, failed past reforestations and mining and water channelling works“). However, both mentioned successful reforestation efforts as an adaptation measure. An important land use change was recognized due to transition from rain-fed to irrigated agriculture, mainly on the foothills, as a result of new structures linked to Tajo-Segura inter-basin transfers.

Table: Drivers of change identified by stakeholders in Albatera, Spain.

	Governmental institutions	Researchers	Sedentary land managers operating at small scale	Transient land users (Hunter/Hiking association)
Changes in agricultural practices (use of irrigation)	X		X	X
Intensity of grazing	X
Loss of vegetation (lack of recovery)		X
Mining		X
Changes in the value of produce			X	X
Rainfall decrease				X
Intensity of visitors				X
Urbanization				X

Awareness-raising was viewed as an adaptation measure by a representative of a hiking association and local blogger: “I practice constant educational and awareness-raising work through my association and through a personal blog. My association regularly organizes and promotes cleaning and restoration activities in disturbed areas.” Such efforts can be seen as both an adaptation and an effort that underpins the adaptation and behavioural change of other groups. However, it was also noted that land abandonment and environmental impacts were the unavoidable result of the low profits from agriculture, and the lack of financial incentives.

It was not possible to assess the degree of agreement between stakeholders during the focus group due to the way in which data were recorded. However, during the focus group, stakeholders recognized the importance of environmental restoration as alternative land management options, and the need to protect current resources. Stakeholders recognized that during the last 10 years the major driver of change has been urbanization, and an increase in outdoor activities. Regarding the low profitability of the crops, stakeholders perceived that their options are to replace traditional plantations such as olive, almond and carob trees with more profitable ones such as fig, pomegranate and lemon trees, as well as to either expand irrigation, or abandon land. At the same time, they recognized the importance of optimizing water use, and to implement tailored policies for the management of semi-arid land.

Table: Summary of future expectations, alternative land management options and policy/economic support required by stakeholder groups in Albatera, Spain.

Stakeholder groups	What future regime changes do you expect?	What alternative land management options will you consider?	What policy / economic support is required to facilitate the adaptations and changes you mentioned?
Local political institutions	• If agriculture is not profitable, water supplies will diminish, leading to cropland abandonment, followed by natural vegetation colonization, but also severe erosion and resource losses.	• Recovery of interesting or suitable private areas to the public domain to be restored. • Special protection to prevent severe removal of vegetation cover	• Financial contributions to recover public ownership of certain areas and to restore them.
Government institutions	• No major changes, stability and reduced fire risk.	• Restoration of riparian vegetation to improve the drainage network	• Support for permanent forest management and maintenance works
Researchers	• No changes in terms of new restoration effort, given the economic situation and the trend of recent years	• Maintain forest management and hydrological control • Forest management alternatives that promote environmental education, recreation and economic activities	• Combined and coordinated financial support from the European Union, regional, and local governments.
Sedentary land managers operating at small scale (farmer)	• No changes, if agricultural products continue to be profitable and water for supplied • A disaster if drought periods (frequency and duration) increase	• Changes in crop types	• Secure water supply
Transient land users (hunter)	• If precipitation does not increase the changes that occurred in the past will be worse and faster	• Change from punctual reforestations to continuous (annual) restoration programs	• A sustained increase in material, human and financial resources
Transient land users (representative of hiking association) and NGO	• Probably the Tajo-Segura inter-basin transfer will not last or be functional for long, affecting irrigation agriculture • Future drier conditions driven by climate-change will affect future reforestation actions. • Hunting and livestock may decline. • If intensive recreational uses, livestock and hunting continue, the local flora and fauna will be adversely affected.	• Evaluation of current management options	• Consideration of long term impacts, and all groups affected in decision making. • Valiant local authorities, that take proper action when necessary- even if unpopular decisions have to be taken • Educational work with recreational users

Note: For an overview results of the workshops on identifying adaptation strategies in all study sites and the concluding recommendations see »Adaptation strategies.

Albatera, Spain: Restoration potential for preventing and reversing regime shifts

2017-03-21T10:04:25+00:00

Authors:	Alejandro Valdecantos (CEAM),V. Ramón Vallejo (UB), Susana Bautista (UA), Matthijs Boeschoten (UU), Michalakis Christoforou (CUT), Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos (TUC), Oscar González-Pelayo (UAVR), Lorena Guixot (UA), J. Jacob Keizer (UAVR), Ioanna Panagea (TUC), Gianni Quaranta (UNIBAS), Rosana Salvia (UNIBAS), Víctor Santana (UAVR), Dimitris Tsaltas (CUT), Ioannis K. Tsanis (TUC)
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	Valdecantos, A. et al. (2016) Report on the restoration potential for preventing and reversing regime shifts. CASCADE Project Deliverable 5.2 104 pp

Results highlights

Old restoration especially affected the contributions of sink and source areas to the landscape and their morphology
New restoration especially affected biodiversity and vegetation structure and biomass
The extremely harsh conditions in Albatera determine low recovery rates of ecosystem structure and function after restoration
New restoration improved ecosystem services in higher extent than old restoration in Albatera
At the medium and long term after restoration, ecosystem services are still far from those provided by natural undisturbed ecosystems

The two restoration approaches did not significantly improved total plant cover in relation to the degraded state (Figure 1 left). In fact, the old restoration showed the lowest values of plant cover (35.5%), significantly lower than the new restoration (43.6%) and the references (55.6%). Considering the four ecosystem states, we found 32 vascular species in Albatera, being the richest states both the reference and the new restoration plots (17.3 species) and the poorest the old restoration with only 9.7 species present (Figure 1 right). Four species were present in the four situations (Fumana thymifolia, Fagonia cretica, and the grasses Brachypodium retusum and Stipa tenacissima) while other four shrubs were only found in the reference plots (Whitania frutescens, Ephedra sp, Pistacia lentiscus and Cistus clusii). Six species were exclusive of the new restored sites, some of them, like Olea europaea, Lygeum spartum and Juniperus oxycedrus, were introduced during the restoration activities.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 1. Total plant cover (left) and species richness (right) in the Reference, Degraded and the two Restored states (Old and New Restoration) in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters denote significant differences." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 2. Shannon-Wiener Index of diversity (left) and evenness (right) in the Reference, Degraded and the two Restored states (Old and New Restoration) in Albatera field site.Different letters denote significant differences." title="">

In addition to species richness, diversity and evenness indexes were significantly reduced in the degraded areas (0.92 and 0.40, respectively) as compared to the references (1.89 and 0.66, respectively). We observed a slight trend in the old restoration to increase these indexes while the improvements in the new restoration were statistically significant but did not reach the reference values (1.48 and 0.52, respectively; Figure 2).

The reference ecosystem is characterized by Artemisia barrelieri and Fagonia cretica, with 17.9 and 13.1%, respectively, and the species with highest cover in the degraded areas is Fumana thymifolia (24.3%), with no other species with cover values beyond 6%.Globularia alypum is the most abundant species in the two restored sites (18.8 and 15.5% in the old and new restoration, respectively). The two first axes of the PCA carried out on specific plant cover explained 44.9% of the total variance and grouped all the plots by the defined state of the ecosystem (Figure 3). Along PC1 references separated from the other three groups of plots while the second axis discriminated the new restoration (highest values), the old restoration (intermediate) and the degraded plots (the lowest) (see Annex I for the species extraction on these two components).

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 3. Distribution of Reference, Degraded, Old Restored and New Restored plots in Albatera field site according to the two first axis of PCA conducted on plant cover." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 4. Plant volume (m3 ha-1)  in the Reference,Degraded, Old Restored and New Restored plots in Albatera field site. Mean, standard errors and significance are shown. Different letters denote significant differences." title="">

Plant volume (a proxy of plant biomass) in the old restoration was quite similar to that in the reference plots and more than 2.2 times higher than in the degraded areas (Figure 4). The new restoration showed intermediate values of plant volume (1259 m³/ha).

We noticed significant changes in the spatial arrangement and size of vegetation associated to degradation and the alternative restoration approaches (Figure 5). Interpatches are significantly shorter in the reference than in the other three states of the ecosystem but we observed a trend to decrease the length (20% shorter than in the degraded) in the new restoration sites. Interpatch cover was also enhanced due to degradation (from 66.9 to 91.8%) but both restorations significantly decreased the percentage of land corresponding to sink areas (82.7 and 84.5% the old and new restoration, respectively). The morphology of patches also changed with degradation and restoration. Patches in the reference averaged 0.50 m long and 0.64 m wide while in the degraded averaged 0.16 m long and 0.19 m wide. Old restoration produced patches significantly longer and wider than in the degraded areas and not different than the references (0.39 m long and 0.82 m wide), and the new restoration did not show significant changes of patch size than in the degraded plots.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 5. Values of Interpatch length (top left), cover (top right), patch length (bottom left) and width (bottom right) in the Reference,Degraded, Old Restored and New Restored plots in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown. Different letters show significant differences." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 6. Values of the Stability, Infiltration and Nutrient Cycling indexes derived from LFA in the Reference,Degraded, Old Restored and New Restored plots in Albatera field site. Mean and standard errors are shown.Different letters show significant differences." title="">

The largest changes in LFA derived indexes were observed in nutrient cycling and infiltration (Figure 6). However differences were only observed between the reference systems and the other three states of the ecosystem, with no significant change among them. We only noticed a trend to increase nutrient cycling and infiltration in the old restoration while the effects of the new restoration were even lighter. Changes in stability were minor and not significant.

Long-term degradation had a severe impact on the services provided by the target ecosystem in Albatera (Figure 7). The reference state showed the highest values of all services and, consequently, also of the final averaged value. Only one service, biodiversity, was significantly improved by the new restoration approach but these areas also showed signs of improving soil and water conservation and nutrient cycling. The old restoration only tended to improve carbon sequestration. From the two restoration approaches, the new restoration resulted in better balance of ecosystem services than the old restoration. However, the two restored systems are still far from the services provided by the reference systems.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 7. Standardized values of the list of ecosystem services in Albatera, as derived from combinations of the different variables acquired. Mean and standard errors are shown.Different letters show significant differences." title="">

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 8. Losses or gains (negative and positive values, respectively) of assessed ecosystem properties in the Restored areas of the Randi field site in relation to the Degraded. Asterisks denote significant differences between ecosystem states (*: 0.10<p<0.05; **: 0.05<p<0.01)." title="">

The two restoration approaches studied improved all the ecosystem variables considered in this assessment (negative values of interpatch cover and length are considered better conditions; Figure 8). The contrasted restoration options in Albatera affected different ecosystem variables, with old restoration affecting patch morphology and interpatch cover while new restoration positively impacted diversity indexes and plant cover and volume.

Note: For full references to papers quoted in this article see

» References

Albatera & Ayora, Spain: Stakeholder workshop to evaluate SLM guidelines

2017-07-05T11:43:40+00:00

Main authors:	Cecilia De Ita, Lindsay C. Stringer, Luuk Fleskens, Diana Sietz
Contributing authors:	Ioannis K. Tsanis, Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos, Ioanna Panagea, Michalakis Christoforou, Giovanni Quaranta, Rosanna Salvia, Sandra Valente, Cristina Ribeiro, Cláudia Fernandes, Oscar González-Pelayo, Jan Jacob Keizer, Alejandro Valdecantos, V. Ramón Vallejo and Susana Bautista
Editor:	Jane Brandt
Source document:	De Ita, C. et al. (2017) Report on multi-scale evaluation of CASCADE's management principles and grazing model scenarios with stakeholders and policy makers. CASCADE Project Deliverable 8.3 69 pp

One workshop was held in Spain covering both study sites. It involved 14 stakeholders, representing environmental NGOs, researchers, land managers and governmental institutions (Figure 1). Government representatives worked in conservation, forestry and agricultural areas. The Local Forest Association was invited, however they did not attend.

" data-placement="top" data-content=" Figure 1. Stakeholders from both Spanish study sites in the workshop held in Valencia, Spain." title="">

Discussions focused on forest fires and land abandonment principles. Land tenure in the study sites is usually held by small proprietaries that do not usually live within the area. Land management is designed and carried out by governmental institutions. Therefore, the workshop focused on bringing together stakeholders representing those institutions relevant to identify the feasibility and barriers of the principles.

Comments on the principles for the land abandonment context

The CASCADE team explained to the workshop participants that principles were elaborated mostly for land managers rather than owners. Stakeholders mentioned that implementation of the principles requires cooperation and legal frameworks, allowing land managers to apply the principles on private property.

For descriptions of the principles discussed here, see »Guidelines for land managers: the land abandonment context_EN

Most stakeholders in Spain agreed with most of the land abandonment principles. However, they stated that they could not consider them as guidelines to prevent land abandonment as the principles do not consider a holistic approach to socio-environmental development, taking into account aspects such as social integration, forest use regulation or burning of crop residues. Stakeholders mentioned that a multitude of factors are causing land abandonment in the area, which in turn is linked with an increased risk of forest fires. Furthermore, other socio-economic issues in the region (such as land tenure structures and processes), decrease the feasibility of implementing the principles. Therefore, stakeholders considered that managing these areas is highly complex, from both administrative and spatial perspectives. Stakeholders also mentioned various barriers to implement the principles (Table 1) linked to the land abandonment context.

Table 1. Causes and consequences of land abandonment mentioned by stakeholders.

LAND ABANDONMENT CONTEXT - SPAIN
Causes	- Low profitability of land and produce. - Lack of or deficient infrastructure. - Search for better quality of life in the urban areas.
Barriers for the implementation of land abandonment principles	- Smallholdings land tenure (mostly private in many parts of the Valencia Region). - Contrasting management goals among private vs common interest. - Lack of clear norms of intervening in private lands. - Large amounts of funding and subsidies are needed. - Labour intensive, there is not enough labour as the area is mountainous.

Stakeholders also expressed disagreement with the terminology used in some of the principles, although not with the principle per se. Some of the stakeholders suggested how they could be clarified. For example, an NGO representative suggested using the term “cropland or agriculture abandonment” instead of “land abandonment” in general, as most land abandonment affects croplands.

Comments on the principles for the forest fire context

For descriptions of the principles discussed here, see »Guidelines for land managers: the forest fire context.

In Spain, the forest fire principles were clear and stakeholders agreed with them in their context, however they were also perceived as too general (Table 2). In response to principle 2.1 “Avoid afforestation with single or flammable species” the representative of the wildlife department disagreed with not considering species for restoration, due to them being flammable. Some species like Juniperus spp. are highly flammable but they are key species in certain ecosystems. Equally, clarifications were also suggested regarding terminology that seemed too broad to be meaningful to stakeholders. For example, in “sustain and increase diversity of endemic plants” (principle 2), the term “endemic” was considered potentially confusing by the Department of Wildlife representative, as most endemic species nowadays are characteristic of degraded environments. The suggestion was therefore made to refer to vegetation as “Indigenous”. Furthermore, referring to vegetation as “fuel” was perceived to be a broad and potentially confusing use of the term, as it was recognised that although some vegetation can act as fuel in a fire situation, many plant species also have an ecological role.

Between the recommendations under principle 3 “Sufficient soil cover shortly after a fire reduces risk of soil erosion”, are mulching and maintaining soil cover in fuel breaks. Stakeholders were dubious about the benefits of mulching due to the scarcity of management experiences, although they recognised the potential benefit of this technique to avoid land degradation. The lack of experience in using or being in contact with this technique meant that they were uncertain about its costs and benefits, as there are few experiences about mulching application as a management technique and these are restricted to small areas especially after forest fires. Different comments were made about these experiences and the type of mulch (hay or forest residues) but there was consensus about the beneficial role of this technique as an emergency land restoration action. Stakeholders also asked the CASCADE team about cheaper options than mulching, and cropland residues were mentioned by stakeholders in this regard. Finally, stakeholders recognised that the term “firebreak” (cortafuegos) is an outdated technical term that fails to reflect the ecological configuration of the area, which presents an array of agricultural and forested patches, rather than a continuous of forest with non-forested sections in a heterogeneous mosaic landscape. Therefore, they felt a holistic view of the forest and the measure was needed for fire management.

In Spain the lack of technical support or information were not seen as a barriers to implementing the principles. Stakeholders however recognised that land tenure is an obstacle both for coordination and implementation of management measures. The small holding sizes of the properties means that there is a multitude of stakeholders that need to agree if measures are going to be taken. In some cases, the owners are not identified by land managers, or it is difficult to contact them, therefore measures cannot be carried out easily as it would involve interfering with private land. This issue is amplified in the case of land abandonment, and in some cases there is opposition to governmental intervention by forest owners. Stakeholders also considered that the needs of the population should be a priority to prevent land abandonment, because if there is a lack of schools, jobs or medical services, land abandonment will continue in the region. They proposed that the management principles for land abandonment should consider social participation in a bottom-up approach, as it is currently happening in the region after large forest fires. Equally, plans should include climate change projections in designing management treatments (prioritization of areas, selection of species and so on). Stakeholders also commented that the role of and impacts on the area’s fauna should be included too.

Table 2. Agreements and disagreements with the forest fire principles by Spanish stakeholders. Y = agreement

FOREST FIRE CONTEXT - SPAIN
PRINCIPLE	Agree/Disagree			Barriers
	NGO	ACADEMIA	GOVERNMENT	LEGAL	ECONOMIC	SOCIAL
1. Minimizing fuel load and connectivity reduce fire risk	Y	Y	Y	- Land tenure in small holdings	- Large funding needed as there is governmental responsibility	- Land abandonment - Lack of social integration
2. Diversity of species reduces flammability, as well as outbreaks of pests, and thus leads to reduced fire hazards. In particular, promoting re-sprouters facilitates recovery after fire.	Y		Y		- Low profitability and lack of alternative profitable activities	- Lack of communication and organisation between forest owners
3. Sufficient soil cover shortly after a fire reduce risk of soil erosion	Y		Y			- Loss of traditional land management knowledge

Note: For full references to papers quoted in this article see

» References